NT 552
Johannine
Literature
& general
epistles
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Dr. Robert C. Newman
Biblical Theological Seminary
Hatfield, PA
NT 552 JohannineLiterature
&General Epistles
SyllabusContents
I. Johannine Literature: Gospel & Epistles.......................................................................... 1-27
A. Gospel of John 1-18
1. Recent Criticism 1
2. Results inLiberalizing Circles 3
3. Attestation andAuthorship 3
4. The Man John 7
5. Date of Fourth Gospel 9
6. Purposes of John 10
7. Characteristics andTechniques 11
8. John's Theology 14
9. Outlines of John'sGospel 17
B. Epistles of John 19-23
1. Author of the Letters 19
2. Background &Contents of the Letters 20
a. 1 John 20
b. 2 John 22
c. 3 John 23
C. Narrative andControversy Genres 23-27
II. The General or Catholic Epistles..................................................................................... 28-66
A. Hebrews 28-43
1. Authorship 28
2. Destination 32
3. Date 33
4. Background ofRecipients 34
5. Argument 36
6. Outline 41
7. Exhortation Genre 41
B. James 44-51
1. Author 44
2. Date 45
3. Content 46
4. Outline 47
5. Argument 48
6. Diatribe Genre 50
C. The Petrine Epistles 52-60
1. Authenticity 52
2. Date 54
3. Content of 1 Peter 55
4. Outline of 1 Peter 57
5. Content of 2 Peter 59
6. Outline of 2 Peter 59
D. Jude 60-66
1. Author 60
2. Connection with 2Peter 61
3. Connection withApocalyptic Literature 63
4. Occasion 64
5. Argument 65
6. Outline 66
III. Johannine Literature: The Revelation......................................................................... 67-79
A. Introduction toRevelation 67-73
1. Authorship 67
2. Date 71
B. Interpretation ofRevelation 73-77
1. Schools ofInterpretation 73
2. Some Principles ofInterpretation 74
3. Outline 76
C. Apocalyptic Genre 77-79
V. The Canon of the New Testament................................................................................. 80-102
A. The Canon Controversy 80-83
1. The Term ACanon@ 80
2. Divergent Views ofExtent of Canon 80
3. Divergent Views ofBasis of Canon 81
B. The Recognition ofCanonicity 83-91
1. The Importance ofTime-Perspective 83
2. Recognition of a WorkWritten Recently 84
3. Recognition of a WorkWritten Long Ago 91
C. HistoricalInformation Recognizing the N.T. 92-102
1. Stimuli toRecognition 92
2. NT Evidence ofPreparation & Recognition 93
3. Recognition inApostolic Fathers 97
4. Recognition in EarlyHeretical Writers 99
5. Recognition in Late 2ndCentury 100
6. Towards FormalRecognition 101
7. Summary on Canon 101
I.Johannine Literature: Gospel andEpistles.
Ourbasic exegetical courses at Biblical Seminary divide the NT into threeparts: (1) Synoptic Gospels(Matthew, Mark, Luke); (2) Acts and Pauline Epistles; and (3) JohannineLiterature and General Epistles. The last of these contains under Johannine Literature: Gospel of John, 1-3 John, andRevelation; and under General Epistles: Hebrews, James, 1-2 Peter, and Jude. For the sake of some sort of combination of historicalchronology and biblical order, we will cover John's Gospel and Epistles togetherat the beginning, but then go into the General Epistles, reserving Revelationfor last.
A.The Gospel of John.
1.Recent criticism of the Gospel of John.
In the last 200 years, with the various theliberal lives of Christ, the Gospel of John has been more seriously questionedas to its authenticity than have the Synoptic Gospels. This is partly due to the supernaturalelements prominent in John.
a. Differences in content betweenSynoptics and John.
1) Unique material ‑ 92% ofJohn is not found elsewhere.
Mark Matthew Luke John
(7%) (42%) (59%) (92%)
v v v v
|‑‑--‑‑‑|‑‑‑-‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|‑‑‑-‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|--‑‑‑‑‑|
0% 10% 40% 60% 90% 100%
% Unique Material
2) Detailed chronology.
‑Jesus' ministry ofc3 years is more explicit in John than in Synoptics
‑Liberals say thatthis is a different chronology and that John is less historical than Synoptics.
‑This was popularview until Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered; not held quite so strongly
.now.
3) Different themes.
missing from John: Kingdom of God, demons,repentance, prayer
new topics in John: truth, life, world, abiding,witness
but J & Synoptics share: Father, Son of man,faith, love, sending
b. Explicit Indications of Jesus' Deityin John.
‑Are definitely clearer inJohn, but are very strongly implied in the Synoptics.
‑In all Gospels, Jesus says "I say",not "thus saith the Lord;" he claims power to forgive sins, raisesthe dead and controls the weather by command, rather than by prayer (as,e.g., Elijah does).
‑Jesus' own statements aremore cryptic than the narrator John is himself (or the Synoptics).
‑cf. John's prologue(1:1) with John 8:58 "... before Abraham was born, I AM."
‑Jesus did not openlyclaim to be God. He intended thatHis works would demonstrate who He was, but even then the disciples did notfully understand His nature until after His resurrection.
‑Liberals do not likedivine claims about Jesus, so want to assign a late date to John's writing.
c. Alleged Hellenistic Features in John.
‑"Logos"(λόγoς) is a common Greek word, but has a significant Greekphilosophical background to it as well:
1) General Greekphilosophical use: the reason behind (controlling) the world.
2) In Philo (Jewishwriter): an intermediary between God and man.
‑Other words also have Greekphilosophical and pagan dualistic meanings: light and dark, truth and error,etc.
‑Some say this shows John'sGospel was written to Greeks, on Greek soil, and not by a real disciple.
‑But Dead Sea Scrolls show that manyof these terms and phrases were common in Palestinian religious thought
‑And "word" (Aramaic memra) appears many times inthe Targums; used as a way to avoid anthropomorphisms of God (e.g., "TheWord of God said" instead of "God said").
These features are thus notpurely Hellenistic, but truly Jewish also.
Perhaps they were chosen to reachout to Greeks using terminology they could relate to.
d. The Gospel claims to be from theclosest apostle.
‑This is the only (canonical)Gospel to make this claim directly.
‑Some suspect fraud and rejectJohn's picture of Jesus as not authentic, especially as 2nd cent. heretics often claimed apostolicauthors for their writings: Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas, etc.
2.Resulting Attitudes toward Gospel of John in liberalizing circles.
a. Bultmann
three or more sources, and two editors;
work completed in current form in period 80-120AD
-- Sign source - Jesus'miracles in Semitic Greek
-- Discourse source -Gnostic influence, poetic Aramaic
-- Passion source - SemiticGreek
First edition by evangelist (not apostle) wasdisrupted;
2nd ed. byecclesiastical redactor who rearranged, added chapter 21 and refs. to churchand sacraments
b. Raymond Brown - liberalizing Roman Catholic
written by"Johannine school" in several stages over many decades, beginningwith oral traditions in 40s and completed by a friendly redactor about 100 AD
c. Martin Hengel
written by John the Elder, founder of Johannineschool which lasted till about 110 AD
Actually the evidence for John'sauthorship is quite strong.
3.Attestation and Authorship of John's Gospel.
a. Internal evidence.
1) Indirect internal evidence sketchedby Westcott in his Origin of the Gospels, 1860; looking at phenomena in theGospel, Westcott suggests that:
a) Religious knowledge shows theauthor was a Jew.
‑Jewishactivities are mentioned but not explained.
b) Geographical knowledge showsauthor was Palestinian.
‑Many areoff‑hand statements, which are striking since few Jews remained inPalestine at the time the Gospel was written (c90 AD, after 70 AD wars).
c) The standpoint of thenarrative (reader's vantage point) suggests the author was an eyewitness, anApostle, and one of the "inner 3"; but he is distinguished from Peter(author raced him to the tomb); and doesn't appear to be James (who died in 44AD).
‑Liberalsoften agree that these features point to John, but say the Gospel is anintentional
fraud.
2) Direct evidence.
Author does not name himself, butgives some hints.
a) John 1:14 "webeheld" => author was beholder,
"glory" ‑ could be transfiguration.
1 John 1:1"what we beheld" implies same author for 1 John as for Gospel
‑Polycarp and Papias say he is the Apostle John.
b) John 1:6,15,19, etc. - this isthe only Gospel that calls John the Baptist just "John"; otherGospels, since they mention the apostle John by name, must distinguish him fromJohn the Baptist, so add "the Baptist" to latter's name
c) John 19:35 ‑ The authorwas one standing at the foot of the cross. He is called "the disciple whom Jesus loved" (v.26‑27).
d) John 21:24‑25 "This is the disciple ... whowrote these things", who is described in v.20 as "the disciple whomJesus loved ... who also leaned back on His breast at the supper..."
b. External evidence.
1) Gospel is alluded to in some ofearliest Christian writings.
a) 1 Clement is earliest extra‑Biblicalwriting (95 AD), but does NOT mention or allude to John's Gospel.
‑John wasprobably written at about the same time, so Clement may not have seen it yet.
b) Ignatius in ch. 7 of hisletter to Philadelphians (c115 AD) alludes to John 3:8 (Lightfoot, p.80):
For even though certain persons desired todeceive me after the flesh, yet the spirit is not deceived, being from God; forÔit knoweth whence it cometh and where it goeth,Õ and it searcheth out thehidden things.
c) Pseudo‑Barnabas (c135),sec. 11, (Lightfoot, p.148)
in the middle of a somewhat allegorical exegesisof several OT passages, quotes John 6:51:
And whosoever shall eat of these shall liveforever.
‑For this reason,Moffatt has given AD 115 as the latest possible date for the writing of John.
d) Justin Martyr (c150 AD).
‑Mentions the"memoirs of the apostles, called Gospels."
‑Calls Jesus the"logos" in Dialogue with Trypho in ch.127‑128; this dialogue/debateoccurred c135 AD, written up c150.
‑Also used logos several times in his FirstApology.
‑Cites John 3:5 in Apology 61: "For Christalso said, 'Except ye be born again, ye shall not
enter into thekingdom of heaven.'"
‑In Dialogue 91 he explains theserpent in the wilderness like John 3:14 does.
e) Tatian's Diatessaron (c170 AD).
‑Opens with andregularly uses the 4th gospel.
‑Harnack notes thatby this time, the 4 Gospels were already accepted, but no others.
f) Muratorian Canon (late 2ndcent. by anonymous Italian church official).
The fourth (book) of the Gospels is that ofJohn (one) of the disciples. Whenhis fellow‑disciples and bishops urged (him), he said: 'Fast togetherwith me today for three days and, what shall be revealed to each, let us tell(it) to each other.' On the samenight it was revealed to Andrew, (one) of the Apostles, that, with all of themreviewing (it), John should describe all things in his own name.
‑John, apparently reluctantto write, was urged by church leaders in Asia Minor who would review it.
‑Idea of group review andapproval agrees w/ John 21:24: "We know that his witness is true."
g) Irenaeus (c125‑200 AD):Writing c170 AD in France.
Afterwards John, the disciple of the Lord whoalso leaned upon his breast, he too published a Gospel while residing in Ephesus(in) Asia.
Against Heresies 3.1.2 (Latin)
Greek in Eusebius, Church History 5.8.2
John, the Lord's disciple, proclaims thisfaith (and) desires, by the proclamation of the Gospel, to remove the errorwhich had been disseminated among men by Cerinthus and much earlier by thosewho are called Nicolaitans who are an offshoot of that knowledge falsely socalled, that he might confound them and persuade (them) that there (is) one Godwho made all things through His Word, and not as they say that the Creator wassurely one, and the Father of the Lord another .... Thus he began with theteaching (of) the Gospel: 'In the beginning was the Word ....'
Against Heresies 3.11.7
‑Irenaeus studied underPolycarp who died in 155 when Irenaeus was c30. Polycarp was martyred 86 years after he was baptized (in 69AD) and had contact with the Apostle John, perhaps for nearly 30 years afterbeing baptized.
‑Implication: Both studied under their teachers asadults.
‑So have pretty direct linkback to Jesus.
‑See John in Ephesus inAsia, fighting Gnostic thought.
‑If John's Gospel is afraud, must assume that the plot to fake it was a very good one in order tomislead Irenaeus, who would have known a lot about John.
‑Cannot say that the moderngospel is a different one than Irenaeus had in view of his extensivequotations.
h) Theophilus of Antioch (c170‑180):
But when God determined to do the thingswhich He had purposed, He brought forth this utterable Word, the first‑bornof all creation; He himself was not emptied of the Word but bringing forth theWord He always had consort with His Word. Hence the Holy Scriptures and all the inspired (writers) teach us (as) one of these, John, says: 'In the beginning was theWord, and (the) Word was with God'; showing that at the first God was alone andthe Word was in Him.
To Autolycus 2.22
‑This letter to a friend is TheophilusÕ only knownwork.
i) Clement of Alexandria (c150‑203):Written c200 AD.
Last of all, John, noticing that the physicalthings had been set forth in the (other) Gospels, being urged by his companionsand inspired by the Spirit, wrote a spiritual Gospel.
Outlines; cited in Eusebius 6.14.5
‑"Being urged"fits with the story in Muratorian Canon.
‑Identifies Gospel, indicatesit is last.
By the end of 2nd cent, Gospel of Johnhas wide geographic recognition.
j) Eusebius (c270‑340 AD)is much later.
Yet of all the disciples of the Lord, onlyMatthew and John have left us (their) memoirs; and they, it is reported, hadrecourse to writing only (under pressure of) necessity ... But when Mark andLuke had already published their Gospels, they say that John, who the wholetime had made use of unwritten preaching, finally resorted to writing also forthe following reason: When the three previously written (Gospels) had alreadybeen delivered to all and to him, they say that (he) accepted (them),testifying to their truth, (but) said that there was likely lacking in thewriting only the account of the things which were done by Christ during thefirst period and at the beginning of (His) preaching ... They say that, when hehad been called upon for these reasons, the Apostle John handed down in hisGospel (an account of) the time passed over in silence by the former evangelistsand (of) the things which were done at this time by the Savior B and these were the things whichhappened before the imprisonment of the Baptist ...
Church History 3.24.5‑15
‑How much thisstatement is a deduction from the content of John itself or tradition from independent sources is hard to say.
4.The Man John.
‑Mentioned by name in 6 books:Matthew, Mark, Luke, Acts, Galatians, and Revelation.
‑Mentioned more than any of theother Gospel writers.
‑Not named as the author in theGospel or Epistles, but we can find much information about him in these.
a. Background.
1) Father was Zebedee, (older?) brotherwas James, Mt 4:21. Mother wasprobably Salome, if Mark 15:40, 16:1 and Matt. 27:56 refer to the same 3 women.
2) His family were fishermen (Matt.4:21), and relatively prosperous since they had hired servants (Mark 1:20).
3) Hints of connections with the cityof Jerusalem:
John was known to thehigh priest, John 18:15.
May have had homethere, where he took Mary, Jn 19:27.
=> Business was sufficientlyprosperous that they had a marketin Jerusalem and the high priest bought from them. (Could get ice from MtHermon & ship fresh in one day, or sell dried or salted fish.)
-Perhaps John belonged topriesthood, as ordinary (lower level) priests would do other work for a living.
4) John may have been a disciple ofJohn the Baptist.
John 1:35, 37, 40: One (Andrew) is identified but other isnot. Some think he is Philip (cf.v.43). Others say he is John sincethis fits his style of not naming himself.
‑Recall that Gospel of Johncalls John the Baptist "John" it never refers to apostle John byname.
b.As Jesus' Disciple in Palestine.
1) John is involved in many incidents inthe Gospels.
‑He is one of the"inner 3" who are let in on a number of events in which the otherdisciples do not have a part.
‑Was present at thetransfiguration and the cross (apparently he was the only male disciple atcross).
‑Races Peter to the tomb.
2) John recedes into the background inActs and is seen only as a companion of Peter.
3) John is an important figure in thechurch at Jerusalem.
‑Called a"pillar" of the church in Gal. 2:9.
‑Date of Paul's visit to Jerusalem here in Gal. 2 isdisputed.
‑Could be JerusalemCouncil of 50 AD, or earlier when aid was brought to Jerusalem church (44?46?).
c.As Jesus' Disciple Elsewhere.
1) Left Jerusalem and Palestine,presumably before 70 AD.
‑Not sure when he left; wasstill there around 50 AD.
‑No tradition that he wasat Jerusalem when it fell.
-As Eusebius relates and Lk21:20-21 predicts, Xns were to flee Jerusalem before it was destroyed.
2) According to Irenaeus, John settledin Ephesus and was there until the end of his life.
‑Probably moved there afterthe death of Paul (64‑68 AD), as PaulÕs letters to Ephesians and 1
Timothygive no hint he had arrived.
‑Could have left Palestinebut not gone directly to Ephesus, so settlement there could be 70 or muchlater.
3) Exiled to Isle of Patmos (Rev 1:9),in the reign of Domitian at c95 AD, according to tradition.
‑Patmos off the coast ofAsia Minor, not far from Ephesus.
‑John was on Patmos"because of the Word of God and the testimony of Jesus," (Rev. 1:9) aphrase used elsewhere in Rev of those who were persecuted as Christians.
‑Domitian (3rdemperor in the Flavian line) was like Nero, persecuting Christians because theywould not worship him.
4) Lived a very long life, until thetime of Trajan (98‑117 AD), according to Irenaeus.
‑In Against Heresies 2.22.5.
‑The death of John wasprobably c100 AD.
‑Are not sure of his age;was probably in his 20's when he was with Jesus => about 90 years old whenhe died (note John 21:22‑25 below).
5.Date of the Fourth Gospel.
‑Variety of dating decreased alot in 20th century.
‑Even liberals now say: At latestearly2nd century.
‑Conservatives generally say theend of the 1st century.
-Some (even liberal J.A.T. Robinson) gofor pre-70 AD.
‑DSS shows that some ideas("light", etc.) were used in early Jewish sources, so need not dateJohn very late.
a. Apparently not after the time ofIgnatius (107‑115), since he seems to refer to it.
=> Written long enoughbefore so it had circulation and Ignatius and readers could be familiar withit.
=> Late 1st century orvery early 2nd cent.
b. Last chapter (21:22‑25) =>John already was an old man.
v.18 Predicts Peter will grow old.
v.23 John corrects the rumor that he himself(John) would not die.
Jesus apparently meant thatit was none of Peter's business if Jesus had different plans for John than forPeter.
‑John was apparentlyold already when he wrote this.
‑Agrees with thestrong tradition that everything by John was written when he was old.
c. Have no textual support for theliberal idea that ch.21 was written later than the rest, so the last decade ofthe 1st century is reasonable, but not certain.
‑Most conservatives (incl.Newman) date it in the 90's.
‑Some (even liberals) putin 80's 70's or even earlier.
‑It appears to supplementthe other Gospels so is probably after the mid 60's.
6.Purposes of John.
a. The purpose stated by the author(John 20:30‑31).
‑Statement follows immediatelyafter Thomas sees Jesus.
1) That readers who havenot seen Jesus might believe Jesus is the Son of God, the Messiah.
2) That, as a result, they will have spirituallife.
‑Shows an evangelistic purpose.
b. Another purpose may be to supplementthe other Gospels.
1) No direct statement by John to thiseffect.
‑Thoughsupported by tradition.
2) Clearly the Gospel does supplement,with some overlap.
‑Most of the material isunique:
‑Pre‑incarnateexistence, ministry before imprisonment of John the Baptist, some conversationsand discourses.
‑See some overlap as itfits in with John's purpose:
‑Death andResurrection: saving belief is based on Jesus' atonement.
‑Feeding the 5000:One of 7 signs showing Jesus' deity
3) The Gospel does presuppose some knowledgeof the life of Jesus on the part of readers.
John 1:29‑34 John the Baptist tells 2 others aboutthe Spirit descending at Jesus' baptism, but the Gospel does not narrate the baptism.
John 3:24 Allusion to Matthew and Mark=s references about Johnthe Baptist's imprisonment assumes a chronological knowledge of Jesus' life.
John 6:53 Feeding of 5000 had recentlyoccurred. This cryptic statementabout eating flesh and blood turns off some disciples and is hard to understand(before Last Supper).
‑Johnomits the Last Supper itself but has this explanation of it.
=> Readers expected to know about LastSupper and its significance.
John 11:2 Refers to "Mary who anointed theLord with ointment, and wiped His feet with her hair..." But John does not report the incidentuntil later.
‑Thus John's Gospel issupplemental and assumes in several places that readers are familiar withevents and persons from the Synoptics.
‑Perhaps John recorded thosestatements of Jesus which the disciples did not use in their ministries becausethey were too hard for the general audience to understand.
‑Maybe they were too hard even forthe disciples in their early ministries, but John had had a lot of time tomeditate on them by the time he writes.
c.Some other possible purposes.
1) refutefalse/antagonistic views about Jesus held by Jews of time; perhaps also tocorrect over-zealous veneration of John the Baptist.
2) addresses Christians(esp 13-17), giving teaching about life in the church.
3) polemic againstgnosticism? more obv in 1 John; nodoubt author aware of gnosticism, and Gospel functions as excellent weaponagainst it.
7.Characteristics and Techniques of John (courtesy Robert A. Peterson)
a. Distinctive Vocabulary
(1) Words omitted in John (w/ frequency in Synoptics)
baptism (10)
miracle (37)
mercy/to show mercy (36)
Gospel/to preach Gospel (30)
to cleanse (18)
to preach (30)
repentance/to repent (23)
parable (48)
prayer/to pray (50)
[demon] [6/43]
(2) Common in John, rarer in Synoptics (freqs in John/Synoptics)
love/to love (44/28)
truth/true (46/10)
to know (56/60)
I am (54/34)
life (34/16)
Jews (66/16)
world (78/13)
witness/to bear witness (47/15)
to send (32/15)
(3) Significance of these differences
John does not have a different theology than theSynoptics, but he does use different imagery. Thus while Jesus doesn't "preach the Gospel" inJohn, he does "bear witness to the truth" so that men may "cometo know the Father" and have "eternal life."
b. Explanatory Notes - a common featurein John which he uses to accomplish several purposes (see Raymond Brown, AnchorBible,p cxxxvi):
explain names & titles - 1:38 (Rabbi), 42(Messiah)
explain symbols - 2:21(body = temple), 12:33 (lifted up = crucifixion)
correct falseimpressions - 4:2 (Jesus not baptizing), 6:6 (knew what he would do)
relate other events -3:24 (John imprisoned), 11:2 (Mary anointing Jesus)
identify characters -7:50 (Nicodemus), 19:39 (ditto), 21:20 (disciple whom Jesus loved)
c. Misunderstandings - used effectivelyby John to show how Jesus' hearers often misunderstand, thinking on earthlyplane when he is speaking on heavenly
2:20 - opponents think Jesus is speaking ofearthly temple
3:4 - Nicodemus thinks he speaks of physicalbirth
4:15 - woman thinks he offers physical water
6:26 - crowd looking for Jesus because they werefed
d. Irony - statements of opponentsintended negatively are true or more meaningful in a sense they don't realize;John sometimes leaves these unanswered to engage his reader
4:12 - Samaritan woman: are you greater thanJacob?
7:42 - crowd: how can Christ come from Galilee?
11:50 - Caiaphas: better for one to die forpeople
e. Double Meaning - John (Jesus?) playson twofold meaning of words too frequently to be coincidental
1:14 - made his dwelling/tabernacled
3:3-8 - born again/born from above
4:10-14 - living water/running water
13:1 - end/uttermost
f. Inverted Parallelism (Chiasm) - Asopposed to regular parallelism (abAB, abcABC), chiasm uses the pattern (abBA,abcCBA); John often uses the latter to unify a passage
1:1-14 creation incarnation
a - word (1) B- light (9)
b - light (7) A- word (14)
6:36-40 - elaborate; see Brown
12:38-41 a- Isa 53 quote (38) B -Isa saw his glory
b - Isa 6 quote (40) A - Isa spoke of him
g. Variation - Leon Morris (Studiesin Fourth Gospel)suggests John's use of variation in vocabulary and word order is so common thatit is insignificant, and that John is more likely to be making an emphasis whenhe doesn't vary!
1:11-12 - parelabon/elabon
1:32-34 - theaomai/horao
6:39-40,44,54 - arise on last day
21:15-17 - agapao/phileo [I would disagree withMorris here]
h. OT Allusions - John's Gospel isfilled with OT allusions. Each of the first 12 chapters contain ideas with deep OT roots:
1:17 - law through Moses (Jesus as source ofgrace & truth)
1:51 - Jacob's ladder, Gen 21 (Jesus asmediator)
3:5 - water & spirit, Ezk 36:25-27(eschatological cleansing)
11:24 - resurrection on last day, Dan 12 (Jesusas resurrection)
15:1 - vine & branches, Ps 80, Isa 5, Ezk 19(Jesus as vine)
i. Symbolism - though cryptic at first,effectively used to get readers to think through significance of Jesus' mission
2:19 - destroy this temple
6:35 - bread of life
9:39 - blind and seeing
11:9-10 - walking in day/night...stumbling
13:30 - and it was night
j. Dualism - an ethical dualism ratherthan Gnostic ontological dualism
3:19-21 - light/darkness, good/evil
3:31 - above/below, heaven/earth
5:24 - life/death
15:2 - fruit/fruitless
k. Hyperbole - emphasis by stating inabsolute terms what is actually relative (a comparison)
1:17 - law... Moses/grace & truth... Christ
3:32 - no one receives his witness
5:31 - testimony not valid
12:44 - does not believe in me but in him whosent...
15:22,24 - they would not have sin
l. Inclusion (inclusio) - using same orsimilar words or ideas to mark off the beginning and end of a literary unit;John uses inclusio to emphasize themes and bind together sections ofvarious lengths:
1:1 and 1:18 - Word was God; unique God
1:1 and 20:28 - Word was God; my Lord and my God
m. Repetition - repeating certain wordsor ideas to indicate emphasis and hold reader's attention
13:20 - receives
13:31-32 - glorified
16:16-19 - a little while, see/behold
n. Apparent Contradictions - John(Jesus?) perplexes his audience by apparently contradicting himself. This device causes the believer tothink harder to resolve the contradiction, increasing reader involvement, whilethe unbeliever may go away in disgust/triumph. Cp Jesus' remarks on purpose of parables in Synoptics, andon sight/blindness in John 9.
3:17 and 12:47 vs 9:39 - to judge or not?
5:31 vs 8:14 - witness true or not?
8.John's Theology (following I. Howard Marshall)
a. John as Revelation
to reveal Jesus' glory as Son of God
shared w/ Father before incarnation (17:5,24)
demonstrated by signs (1:14, 2:11)
to world (chs 1-12)
12:36b-50 ends w/ summary and clear break
turns to disciples (chs 13-17)
glory seen in humble service
disciples called to same
supremely glorified in passion (chs 18-21)
to reveal truth (1:14, 17)
world characterized by error, imperfection, sin
Jesus brings truth (18:37),
is truth incarnate (14:6)
followed by Spirit of Truth (14:17)
leads men to true worship (4:23)
frees them from errors of devil (8:44)
thru knowledge of truth (8:32)
brings true, real bread for souls of men incontrast to empty satisfactions of
world (6:32, 55)
b. Signs and Witnesses
revelation thru signs or works of Jesus
not just evidence of miraculous, supernaturalpower (4:48)
character shows they arefrom God (9:16) and they authenticate Jesus' person (3:2; 6:14; 7:31); usuallysigns form basis of a dialog or discourse giving spiritual significance
also series ofword-signs: seven or eight "I am"s (6:35; 8:12; 10:7, 11; 11:25;14:6; 15:1; perhaps 8:24): current religious concepts taken over by Jesus toexplain his person and mission; a veiled claim to deity
glory of Jesus attested by witnesses
Jesus himself (18:37)
John Baptist, etc. (12:17)
disciples (15:27)
witness at cross (19:35)
evangelist himself (21:24)
Scriptures (5:39)
Father (5:37)
Jesus' signs (10:25)
c. Person of Jesus – a series of titles
Word (1:14, 17)
Jews - separate being? (Ps 33:6; Pr 8:22ff)
Christians (Col 4:3; Eph 6:19)
educated pagans -principle of order, rationality (popular Stoicism)
Messiah (7:42)
see Jews' questions of 7:26ff; 10:24
disciples' confessions (1:41; 4:29; 11:27;20:31)
Son of Man
a key term in Synoptic Gospels
hiddenness of Messiahship
necessity of suffering
eschatological judge
latent in John (12:34; 3:14; 5:27), emphasis:
sent from heaven as revealer & savior (3:13;9:35)
glorified by being lifted up (12:23-24)
Son of God - most important in John
sent by God as savior (3:16)
to lead reader to recognize claim (19:7)
made confession of disciples (1:34,49;11:27)
reveals Father (1:18)
shares Father=s activities of giving life & judging(5:19-29)
God - follows from Son of God
Word is God (1:1)
confessed as God by men (20:28)
climax of Gospel of John
d. Work of Jesus - more titles
Life - John's favorite
men in state of death (5:24f),
headed for judgment (3:18, 36)
Jesus offers life - knowledge of God and Jesus(17:3)
Jesus himself called "life" (1:4;11:25; 14:6)
offers living water (4:14)
living bread (6:33f)
Light - similar picture
light of world (8:12)
especially developed in chapter 9
men in state of blindness (9:39-41),
darkness (3:19; 12:46)
Jesus cures blindness,
gives light of life
Way (14:1-7)
a major OT theme (e.g., Ps 1:1)
similar to "door" in 10:9
Good Shepherd (ch 10)
fulfilment of OT promise
saving death on behalf of men (10:11)
flock introduces idea of church
e. The New Life
Savior - accept Jesusfor new life (4:42; 5:24) or remain in darkness until judgment (12:46-48)
New Birth - radical changeproduced by Spirit, by which person becomes a son of God (1:12)
Faith - from human side,change produced by faith in Son of God (3:14-18); distinguishes two kinds offaith: 1st insufficient by itself
-- intellectualacceptance of Jesus' claims (11:42; 8:24; 11:27; 20:31)
-- full commitment(3:16; 4:42; 9:35-38; 14:1)
Knowledge
unsaved have no real knowledge of God (1:10;16:3)
can know God thru knowing Jesus (8:19; 14:7)
analogous to way Jesus knows God (10:14f)
Love
characterizes new relationship
like that between Father and Son (3:35; 14:31)
directed toward Son rather than Father (14:23;15:9; 17:26; 21:15-17)
Other Terms
abide - 6:56; 14:17; 15:4-10
in (mutual indwelling) - 14:20-23; 17:21-26
f. People of God
Church - term does not appear, but see:
Flock - w/ Jesus as shepherd
Vine - 15:1-8 w/ Jesus as stem, source of life
Love/unity (chs 13, 17)
vs hate/persecute (15:18-16:4)
Sending - 17:20; 20:21; ch 21
g. Eschatology
Continuing life of church (14:12)
Spirit as replacement for Jesus (14:16-18, 26;15:26; 16:7-11, 13-15)
"Realized Eschatology" - already
Jesus comes again in Spirit
already have eternal life
judgment already at work
But doesn't replace Future Eschatology - not yet
future coming - 14:3; 21:23
future judgment - 5:25-29
9.Outlines of John.
a. For Comparison with Synoptics Scale:"|" = approximately 1 chapter.
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
| Pre‑existence, Incarnation
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑1:19
| Preparation for Ministry
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑2:1
|
| Ministry in:
|
| Judaea (especially beforethe
| imprisonment of John the
| Baptist. Includes various
| feasts in Jerusalem.)
|
| Galilee
|
| Samaria (more thanothers)
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑12:1
| Last Week
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑13:1
|
|
| Betrayal, Trial,Crucifixion
|
| (includes manyspeeches)
|
|
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑20:1
| Resurrection
|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
b. Showing John's Structure
A. Revelation of Jesus to the World (1:1-12:50)
1. Prologue (1:1-18)
2. Manifestation of Jesus (1:19-2:11)
3. The New Message (2:12-4:54)
4. Jesus, the Son of God (5:1-47)
5. The Bread of Life (6:1-71)
6. Conflict with the Jews (7:1-8:59)
7. The Light of the World (9:1-41)
8. The Good Shepherd (10:1-42)
9. The Resurrecton and the Life (11:1-57)
10. The Shadow of the Cross (12:1-36a)
11. Epilogue (12:36b-50)
B. Revelation of Jesus to his Disciples(13:1-17:26)
1. The Last Supper (13:1-30)
2. The Farewell Discourses (13:31-16:33)
3. Jesus' Prayer for his Disciples (17:1-26)
C. Glorification of Jesus (18:1-21:25)
1. The Passion of Jesus (18:1-19:42)
2. The Resurrection of Jesus (20:1-31)
3. The Commission to the Disciples (21:1-25)
B.The Johannine Epistles.
1. Author of the Letters.
‑Traditionally John the Apostle.
‑Some moderns try to say it is"John the Elder," claiming evidence from 2 John 1 , 3 John 1, andPapias' statement from his "Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord"cited in Eusebius' Church History 3.39.3‑4:
And I shall not hesitate to append to theinterpretations all that I ever learnt well from the presbyters and rememberwell, for of their truth I am confident. For unlike most I did notrejoice in them who say much, but in them who teach the truth, nor in them who recount the commandments ofothers, but in them who repeated those given to the faith by the Lord and derived from truth itself;but if ever anyone came who hadfollowed the presbyters, I inquired into the words of the presbyters, whatAndrew or Peter or Philip or Thomas or James or John or Matthew, or any other of the Lord's discipleshad said, and what Aristion and the presbyter John, the Lord's disciples, weresaying. For I did not suppose that information frombooks would help me so much as theword of a living and surviving voice.
‑Eusebius concludes from thisthat Papias refers to 2 Johns, since the name is listed twice in twocategories): John the Apostle andJohn the Elder. He deduces thatthe Elder wrote Revelation (Eusebius was amillennial and not favorable to Rev)but that the Apostle wrote everything else.
‑Note this is the best evidence Eusebius hasto support his claim.
‑Modern liberals often say theopposite: Rev was by the Apostle,while the Gospel and Epistles were by the Elder.
‑While Eusebius' understanding ofPapias is possible, it is hardly a necessary one. Note the following features:
1) Papias consistently calls theApostles "Presbyters";
2) He shifts verb tense between the long andthe short list: What presbyters"had said" (perfect) and what Aristion and John "weresaying" (imperfect).
‑Could be that he isreferring to two sources rather than two persons: what people had said (previously) and what two authorities(about whom he occasionally hears) were saying now.
‑Personal testimony in Gospel makesit difficult to get around John the Apostle as author, esp. his position at thetable at the Last Supper.
‑Style of 1‑3 John is verysimilar to one another; 1 John strongly connects with the Gospel, which isintended to be understood as by John the Apostle.
2.Background and Contents of the Letters
a. 1 John
1) Background
Genre
not letter format
more like a tract for particular situation
False Teachers
left church(es) John writing to (2:18-19)
trying to lead others out of church (2:26)
Heretical Group
esoteric
claims superior knowledge (2:20,27)
shows little love (4:20)
prob forerunner to later Gnosticism
Teachings of Heretics(as inferred from 1 John)
Christology: denied major biblical features
Messiahship (2:22)
Pre-existence (1:1)
Son of God (4:15; 5:5,10)
come in flesh (4:2; see 2 Jn 7)
to provide salvation for mankind (4:9-10,14)
[some similarities to gnostic teacher Cerinthus]
Soteriology
teachers claimed sinlessness (1:8,10)
did not need Jesus' redemption?
moral indifference (2:4,15; 3:4,7-8)
[prob this is reflection of gnostic dualitybetween (good) spirit and (bad) matter]
2) Content of 1 John
Purpose (1:1-4)
to explain what John hasseen and heard re/ word of life manifest in Jesus
to have joyfulfellowship between readers, John and God
God is Light (1:5-2:6)
fundamental proposition; no darkness in Him
so slogans of false teachers are mistaken:
1:6a: we have fellowshipw/ God (but walk in darkness)
1:8a: we have no sin
1:10a: we have not (never?) sinned
2:4a: I know Him (butdon't keep commandments)
God's New Commandment: Love (2:7-17)
Christians called to obey
not really new, butcharacterizes new era that came with Jesus
applies to love of brother also
marks out who is in light and who in dark
don't cling to world which is passing away
False Teachers (2:18-27)
presence a mark of new era
left church as not really believers
deny Jesus, and thus God
claim special knowledge,but only real believers have such
Abide in Christ (2:28-3:3)
test selves & others by Christ-likeness
privilege to be His children
Character and Christianity (3:4-10)
Xn's ideal & goal is not to sin
false teachers make no such attempt
Love and Hatred (3:1-18)
believers commanded to love
will be hated by world
love is the mark of the Xn
manifested in acts of care for poor
Our Confidence (3:19-24)
presence of love a mark of Spirit
assures us even when conscience condemns
gives us boldness in prayer
Test of Spirit (4:1-6)
false teachers also claim Spirit
true belief about Jesus necessary
God is Love (4:7-12)
love comes from Him
marks off those who are His
His love shown in sending Jesus
though we cannot see Him, we can see His love
Grounds of Christian Assurance (4:13-5:4)
possession of Spirit
confession of Jesus Christ
practice of love toward God and man
True Christian Faith (5:5-12)
centered on Jesus Christ
water - His baptism
blood - His death
these, with Spirit, are God's testimony to Jesus
so don't make out God tobe a liar and so reject eternal life
John's Purpose (5:13-21)
to assure believers of their salvation
to give confidence inprayer, esp prayer for erring brothers (unless they have already died)
Xns have power not to sin
they belong to God
they are in Jesus
stay away from idols!
b. 2 John
Genre
standard letter format
length about right for one sheet of papyrus
Recipients
elect lady and her children
some make her a specific unnamed woman
some have her named AKyria@ or AEklekte@
probably symbolic for a church and its members
(see 1 Pet 5:13 and standard practice re/cities)
perhaps to protect if letter intercepted
Occasion
similar to 1 John (cp 2 Jn 7 and 1 Jn 4:3)
false teachers
traveling from church to church
denying real incarnation of Son of God
Content
warning against such teaching
those who "goon" to such "higher" teaching actually leave Christ and Godbehind!
don't extend hospitality to false teachers
follow the truth you already have
hopes to see them soon
c.3 John
Genre
like 2 John, short standard letter
but here a private letter
Recipient
Gaius, a leading member in some church
Occasion
Diotrephes, seeking leadership in a church
(Marshall suggests neighboring church ratherthan Gaius')
perhaps one form oftension raised by development of settled church leadership alongside itinerant
aspiring to be local"bishop" and resented any outside interference
Content
Gaius commended (1-8)
holding to truth
practical love to traveling preachers
Contrast Diotrephes (9-11)
seeking leadership
resisting John
withholding a previous letter?
refusing to welcome traveling preachers
excommunicating those who do
Demetrius commended (12)
probably bearer of letter and traveling preacher
Closing (13-14)
hope to visit
greetings to and from friends
C.Narrative and Controversy Genres
1.Building Exegetical Competence
a. English (native language) BibleKnowledge
OT has 929 chapters, NT has 260, total 1189
Need to read several chapters/day
Once thru per year: 3.26 chapters/day
4 chapters/day: thru OT once, NT twice
b. Biblical Language Competency
Keep up via regular translation, vocab review,
grammar (Pastor Al Jackson: thru Metzger yearly)
TVT recommends verse/day from each testament
c.Bible Background
Special study for specific passages
commentaries, encyclopedias
be realistic: don't overkill & then give up
Wide reading:
have read over 50 books/yr since 1968
usually over 50 in religion
d. Spiritual Insight
Gained thru experience w/ own problems, pluslearning
via helping others with theirs
Crucial to have a close communion, love for Lord
2.Genres in Johannine Literature & General Epistles:
Genre:a type of literature
may be as broad as distinction betweenprose/poetry
may be as narrow as limerick, parable
Genrescovered in class exegesis or term paper passages:
1. Narrative:
John 7:37-52 combines both (1) Narrative and (4)Controversy/Polemic
Rare outside John in this part of NT (common inSynoptics)
2. Letter:
Found in all but John, tho not much letter formin 1 John or Hebrews
TP: 3 John
3. Diatribe:
James 2:1-13
James uses this genre heavily
4. Controversy/Polemic:
John 7:37-52
TP: Jude 3-13
Common in both Gospels and epistles
5. Exhortation:
Heb 12:1-13
Common throughout epistles
6. Prophecy/Apocalyptic:
Rev 19:11-21
Common in Rev, 1-2 Thess, 2 Peter
7. Parable/Allegory:
TP: John 15:1-8
Common in John, Revelation
8. Typology:
TP: Heb 7:1-10
Common in Hebrews, Revelation
9. Thanksgiving/Blessing:
TP: 1 Pet 1:3-12
Genresnot covered in class or term paper passages:
1. Miracle Account:
Frequent in John; covered in Synoptics
2. Hymn, Poem:
Frequent in Revelation; covered in OT course onPoetry
3. Sermon/Discourse:
Frequent in John
Some think 1 John and Hebrews belong here
4. Doxology:
Frequent at end of epistles
e.g., Heb 13:20-21
5. Thanksgiving/Blessing:
Frequent at beginning of epistles
e.g., 1 Pet 1:3ff
6. Prayer Report:
Frequent near beginning of letters, e.g., 2 John3
3.The Narrative Genre
a. What is a Narrative?
1) Definition
A narrative, very briefly, is a story, account,or tale of events. It may beeither factual or fictional, though I understand all biblical narratives to befactual unless somehow marked. Forexample, narratives in parables are probably fictional; Jotham's narrativeof the trees electing a leader (Judg 9:8-15) is presumably (!) fictional.
Narrative is a very broad genre, usually asubclass under prose, though poetic narratives do exist in literature(e.g., the Song of Deborah and Barak, Judg 5). It may be distinguished from prayer, exposition,dialogue or discourse, for instance, though these may be included in anarrative or even occasionally have a narrative included in them. E.g., the Gospels and Acts arenarratives, yet include these other genres.
2)Components of Narrative
a) Actors/Characters
The persons who appear in the narrative, causingthe events narrated, or affected by them.
b) Events/Action
Occurrences described by the narrative.
c) Scenes
Where the events occur: time, country, region,town, indoors or out, etc.
d) Plot
The interconnection and development of theevents in a narrative. A complexnarrative may have more than one plot, with the various plots interwoven insome way or other. The plotitself, often a conflict of some sort, may be subdivided into sections where,for example, tension is building, the climax is reached, the conflict isresolved, tension is released, etc.
b. Types of Narrative within theGospels
Leland Ryken, in Words of Life: A Literary Introduction to the NewTestament(Baker, 1987), pp 36ff, suggests the following types of narratives occur in theGospels:
1) Annunciation/Nativity Stories
Narratives of events surrounding the birth ofJesus. Emphasis on uniquenessof Jesus, historical validity, supernatural occurrences, fulfilment ofprophecy, excitement, etc.
2) Calling/Vocation Stories
Narratives of Jesus' calling people. Who is called, in what circumstances,what is the nature of the call, what kind of response was made?
3) Recognition Stories
Narratives of people discovering who Jesusis. What were the circumstanceswhich led to recognition, what did the person come to recognize about Jesus?
4) Witness Stories
Jesus or another character testifies who Jesusis or what he has done, and what the evidence is for this.
5) Encounter Stories
Representative stories of how Jesus seeksothers. Begin with his or theirinitiative, continue with Jesus making some claim on their lives, end withtheir response, either acceptance or rejection.
6) Conflict/Controversy Stories
Most common in Gospels, pitting Jesus asprotagonist against an opposing person or group (antagonist). Note the defense, offense, how Jesusgets the advantage, what lesson we are to learn.
7) Pronouncement Stories (in FormCriticism, Apophthegm Stories)
An event is linked with a notable saying byJesus. How do the story and sayinginterrelate?
8) Miracle Stories
We discuss this under the genre "MiracleStory," section III of Synoptics notes. Ryken suggests typical structure as follows:
a) Need is established
b) Jesus' help sought
c) Person in need (or helper) expressesfaith/obedience
d) Jesus performs a miracle
e) Characters respond to miracle/Jesus
9) Passion Stories
Narratives of events surrounding the trial,death and resurrection of Jesus. Can be viewed as whole section for each Gospel, or subdivided intoseparate stories.
10) Hybrid Stories
Narratives which combine elements of the above,e.g., miracle stories which produce recognition, pronouncement storieswhich are also encounters, etc.
4.Controversy Narratives (Ryken=s #6: Conflict/Controversy Stories)
a. Jesus may not be addressingthe particular controversy you are concerned about, since His first concern iswith the controversy going on at His own time.
b. Thus you need to see what thecontroversy was at that time.
c. Who are the opponents? Where are they coming from?
d. What is Jesus' view of thematter? Be careful, it may not beyour view of the matter!
e. How is Jesus arguing for Hisposition? Remember that Jesus'opponents do not accept His claims, and therefore are not about to take Hisword for it. Can we understand Hiswords as actually arguing from where they are to where He is?
f. Jesus may leave out some stepsof an argument as they would be easily understood by His original audience oropponents. It does not follow thatwe will understand Him unless we can supply those steps.
g. Once we have gotten togetherwhat Jesus is saying to His original opponents and audience, we are then readyto see how this carries over to us and others living today.
II.The General or Catholic Epistles.
Weturn now to the so-called Acatholic@ or Ageneral epistles,@ the traditional namesfor all the non-Pauline letters in the NT, including 1-3 John. These names are not totallysatisfactory, since they imply a general or catholic (universal) address forthese letters. As we shall see,Hebrews at least was originally sent to some specific congregation.
A.Hebrews.
1. Authorship.
‑Is probably the most contestedof any Biblical book, both among liberals and conservatives, because it isanonymous.
a. Variety of views on authorship.
1) Paul.
‑This is thetraditional view, but it is widely disputed due to dissimilarities with knownPauline letters.
‑Many respectedleaders in the early church went to various "combination theories" toexplain its style (see below).
2) Paul and Luke.
‑Clement ofAlexandria guessed that Paul wrote or preached it in Aramaic or Hebrew and Luketranslated it.
‑Do see some featuresof Luke's style in Hebrews.
‑The Greek stylewould imply the translator had a free hand, as he uses a refined Greekrhetorical style.
3) Paul and Clement of Rome.
‑Eusebius suggeststhat Paul preached the message in a synagogue in Rome and Clement translatedit.
‑Probably guessedthis because Clement is the first to quote from his letter (95 AD).
‑But Clement's Greekstyle is nothing like that of Hebrews.
4) Luke alone wrote it.
‑Calvin suggestedthis, F. Delitzsch agreed; is not suggested by any early writer.
‑Major problem isthat Luke is not a Jew, but the writer is quite familiar with Jewishbackgrounds.
5) Barnabas.
‑Tertullian (c200 AD)held this view, but don't know his reasons for it.
‑Bernard Weiss, Zahn,and Godet also take this view.
6) Apollos.
‑Suggested by Luther(a new idea at that time).
‑Held by Alford,Farrar, Robertson, Lenski.
‑Does fit what weknow about Apollos from the NT: Jewish, from Alexandria (Hebrews looks like Alexandrian Greek), veryfamiliar with Scripture, skillful arguer with Jews.
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑some suggestions that are more off-the-wall ‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
7) Clement of Rome alone.
‑Erasmus and somemodern liberals hold this, chiefly because Clement is the earliest one to quotefrom it.
8) Priscilla and Aquila.
‑Adolf Harnack wasbig on this one.
9) Priscilla alone.
‑Arthur S. Peake andGloria Steinem maintain this, say culture then would not tolerate femaleauthor, thus is anonymous.
-Certainly true that femaleauthorship of surviving literature from the anc Greco-Roman world is very rare,but not unheard of.
b. Internal Evidence of authorship
1) Explicit indications in the letterrather few.
a) Author is an associate andtraveling companion of Timothy (13:23). Can't tell if he is older, younger, or a peer.
b) Seems not to be one of the 12original Apostles (2:3).
‑Takes more of a 3rdperson position as regards the source of the NT revelation, putting himselfwith his hearers.
‑Seems to be movingaway from the Apostolic age (13:7) in mentioning that the leaders have passedon.
‑Bruce says"2nd generation" but leaders could have been martyred 5 years after thischurch got started.
‑But 1:2 countersthis; probably not a 2nd generation Xian.
‑Scholars argue thatPaul would not have spoken this way.
‑However, if Paul isspeaking to a group which knew the Lord before he did, he would probably notemphasize his direct connections.
c) Appears to be only one speaker(no major co‑authors), as the writer uses a singular verb, pronoun, andaccusative masculine singular participle when referring to himself
"recounting" (11:32).
‑Thus is probably nota woman either (masculine participle).
‑Cannot argue strongly fromthe anonymity of the text, because the author seems clearly to be known to hisoriginal audience.
2) Content.
a) Contains some clearsimilarities to Paul's thoughts and language.
‑In certain areas thesame phrases occur:
1:4 = Phil 2:9 2:10= Rom 11:36 7:18= Rom 8:3
7:27 = Eph 5:2 8:13= 2 Cor 3:11 12:22= Gal 4:25,26
‑However, we also seesimilar thought and language between Paul and 1 Peter, which liberals useagainst 1 Peter's authenticity.
‑Does imply a unityamong the Apostles in terminology and doctrine.
b) Some real differences instructure.
‑No salutation orgreeting as is typical of letters in general and of Paul's in particular.
‑See doctrine andexhortation interspersed in Heb; in Paul's letters the doctrine and exhortationusuallyare separated into two distinct sections ("therefore" in Rom. 12:1).
‑Unfortunately, wehave no examples of the other candidates' writing to compare their style withthat of Hebrews.
‑Can maintain Paulineauthorship by proposing this is his sermonic style (rather than his letterstyle), and Hebrews was written as a sermon to be delivered in his absence.
‑Differences couldalso be due to the specifically Jewish audience. Other letters by Paul were written to Gentile groups butHebrews does not even mention Gentiles and uses arguments which would have nostrength for Gentile converts in danger of falling back into paganism.
c) Different emphases on thecontent of the OT.
‑Paul usually looksat the OT as a system of laws, particularly of moral law.
‑Author of Hebrewssees the OT as a system of types, particularly in the ceremonial law.
‑This could be due tothe difference in audience, but some find this too great an inconsistency forPaul.
3) Style.
a) Is more Hellenistic orClassical than any of Paul's (other) letters.
‑This was recognizedin early times: Eusebius says thatOrigen felt: "The thoughts are the apostle's, but the language andcomposition are someone else's." (Eccl. Hist. 2:77).
‑Is not a matter ofthe "difficulty of the Greek." 2 Cor. is at least as difficult asHebrews.
‑The major factor isthe rhetorical style.
b) Are some statisticaldifferences in phrasing.
‑"Lord JesusChrist" occurs over 200 times in the (other) Pauline epistles.
‑Does not occur atall in Hebrews.
‑Find "LordJesus" and "Christ Jesus" each once, "Jesus Christ" 3times.
‑Could argue thatthis phrase was not common or popular in Jewish circles, like substituting"Yeshua" for "Jesus" in Messianic Jewish circles today.
c.External Evidence.
1) Hebrews is attested as early as anyother NT work.
‑Clement of Rome (1 Clement, c95AD) makes extensive allusions to it.
‑1 Clem. 36 refers to Heb.1:3,4,5,7,13; 12:2, then uses the same OT passages as Hebrews to show thatJesus is their high priest.
‑1 Clem. 17 refers to Heb. 3:2;11:37 [not as clear].
‑1 Clem. 43 refers to Heb. 3:5.
‑However, Clement gives no hintsas to its author, probably assuming the Corinthians were already familiar withit.
2) The Alexandrian fathers all refer toit.
‑Pantaenas (before 200), Clement(c200 AD), Origen (c225 AD).
‑These three were all heads ofthe Alexandrian "seminary."
‑They note that the localchurches favor Pauline authorship, but Origen says that no one knows who reallywrote it.
3) Tertullian (c200 AD) assigns it toBarnabas.
‑Gives no argument for this;perhaps Barnabas was the accepted author in his area.
4) Generally, the Western churchesdenied Pauline authorship (e.g., Hippolytus), while the Eastern churches pushedfor it (while admitting an associate translated it).
5) In later centuries, the Westernchurch shifted to favor Paul.
d.Summary on Authorship.
‑The author is not Timothy!
‑The single most likely named candidate is Paul;perhaps this reflects his homiletic style.
-But more likely is that the author isnot Paul; the great proliferation of other alternatives so early makes one veryhesitant to be dogmatic.
‑Of the other candidates, perhapsApollos or Barnabas is next best.
‑Must conclude that the Lord letthe knowledge of its authorship die out in the church.
‑This is similar to many OT booksfor which we do not know authorship.
2.Destination of Hebrews.
a. The people.
‑Were almost certainly Jewish(although some fringe scholars suggest a Gentile or mixed audience).
‑Has no references to Gentiles ortheir controversies.
‑Recipients were at leastprofessing Christians (no evangelistic thrust to the message).
‑Comparisons of Jesus with Moses,Joshua, angels, high priest, etc. would have no appeal to Gentiles tempted torevert to paganism.
‑But these are strong argumentsfor religious Jews tempted to fall back into a non-Christian form of Judaism.
‑Would have to use an entirelydifferent line of argument with Gentiles, who would not have an ingrainedrespect for OT.
b. Location of Recipients.
‑No clear indication: the usual suggestions are Jerusalem andRome; sometimes Antioch, Alexandria
‑The critical passage (13:24) isambiguous:
"Those from Italy (oæ •¹ë τς zIταλίας)greet you."
‑But can't tell if they aresending greetings home to Italy, or if they are in Italy sending greetings toothers.
‑Newman (following Lenski) favorsRome as the destination.
‑Probably written to a Jewishhouse church in Rome facing Nero's persecution.
‑The remark to greet all theother leaders in 13:24 (beyond the scope of the immediate recipients) implies asubgroup within a larger group, such as a house church within a city havingmany such.
3.Date.
a. Latest possible date: 95 AD (must precede 1 Clement).
‑Some date it later by claimingthat Clement had not yet written it yet, but ....
b. Earliest possible date.
‑Is definitely after 30 AD.
‑Verse 2:3 ("heard")implies the church is now working with secondary sources of information.
‑Verse 13:7 ("consideringthe outcome of their lives") implies that their earlier leaders may already have died(martyred?).
‑This would have happenedin Jewish circles immediately, in Roman circles c64 AD.
‑These imply, but hardly prove, a"2nd generation" church in the sense that the 1st leaders are nowgone.
‑This need only be 5 years,not 40 years.
c. More refinement attempted.
‑Have many indications the Templewas still functioning, carrying on the OT liturgy.
8:4 ‑‑ "there are thosewho offer gifts according to the law."
8:13 ‑‑ "becoming obsolete ... ready todisappear..."
10:1 ‑‑ "they offer continually..."
10:8 ‑‑ "which are offered according to thelaw."
13:10 ‑‑ "thosewho serve the tabernacle have no right to eat."
13:11 ‑‑ "bloodis brought ... and [bodies] are burned."
‑All these references to thesacrificial service are present tense.
‑Some argue these are gnomicpresents and refer to the OT narratives, not the Temple. This is OK grammatically.
‑But the argument that Jesussupercedes the sacrificial system would have been greatly strengthened if theTemple had already been destroyed so that OT sacrifices were no longer beingoffered at all. This does notappear to be the case.
‑Hardly seems possible that theauthor would have omitted some comment about its destruction if it hasoccurred.
=> must date before 70AD.
‑The reference to Timothy (13:23)moves back the earliest date (if this is "Paul's" Timothy), since hedoes not appear on the scene until the 2nd MJ (50+ AD) and would not beimportant enough to imprison until the late 50's and beyond.
‑The references to prison and thefear of persecution (10:32‑34,35,39; 12:3,4,11‑12) imply that itwas not safe to be a Christian.
‑If Hebrews was written to Rome,then they were not under persecution before Nero (c64 AD). Thus the "window" when itwould be safe to be Jewish and not Christian would be between the Fall of 64 AD(after the fire in Rome) but before the outbreak of the Jewish War (c66 AD).
‑The earlier trials underClaudius (problems with other Jews, forced to leave Rome c49 AD) would then fitwith the references to earlier persecution (6:10, 10:32‑34).
‑If Hebrews was not written toRome, but to any large city with a big Jewish population, then the window wouldbe larger (starting c55 AD from Timothy reference), but would still close atc66 AD, when the beginning of Jewish War made the Jews at least as unpopular asthe Christians.
4.Background of the Recipients.
a. Their conversion.
‑2:3 implies they were convertedby the immediate disciples of Christ (but not necessarily any of the 12Apostles), who had confirmed the truth to them with "signs andwonders" and "gifts of the Spirit" (2:4).
‑Although they arewarned to hold on to the end (3:14), the writer is confident that they aresaved (6:9).
b. Their Christian life and ministry.
‑The group had seen somepersecution in earlier days (10:32‑34). Some were thrown in jail, but allwere mocked and apparently had their property seized.
‑Had helped those who werepersecuted (6:10; but this is a very general statement).
‑Had not yet been physicallyharrassed (12:4; or had recent martyrs, if we take "bloodshed" to bea euphemism for death).
‑Had been Christians long enoughto have their first leaders die (13:7, either naturally or matryred).
‑But: they had stagnated.
‑By now they should beteachers and leaders themselves (5:12), but were not.
‑Had been Christians for along time (perhaps 10+ years) and did well in the beginning, but now have aproblem.
c. Their Problem.
‑They knew the first principlesof Christianity well (6:1), but were backsliding (5:12), disobedient (5:11 B not willing or ready to listen), andsluggish (6:12) in doing Christian works.
‑Were in severe danger ofapostasy (3:12, 6:4‑8, 10:39; all of ch. 11 gives positive examples toreinforce 10:39).
‑Apostasy did not involvepaganism or corruption of a doctrinal point.
‑Were apparently tempted toreturn to Judaism wholesale.
=> A situation where it was safe tobe a Jew and where Christianity looked like it might be a mistake.
‑If Rome => Nero'spersecutions.
‑If not Rome =>Jewish persecution with arguments against Christianity.
‑Writer argues that Christianitysupercedes the OT covenant, and Jesus has fulfilled the ceremonial law.
‑Has two emphases:
1]The status of Jesus as our mediator.
2]Jesus' typological fulfillment of OT sacrifices.
5.Argument of Hebrews (a condensed explanatory paraphrase).
God'smessage to His people has recently reached its climax in His Son, theWorld-ruler and Creator. This Oneis God's glory and perfect image, who holds the world together by His powerfulword. Since completing His work ofpaying for sin, He rules as co-regent with His Father in heaven. (1:1-4)
Hisexalted status can be seen by contrast with that of the angels, as described inseveral passages of Scripture. Heis the Son (in a sense the angels are not), the object of worship, the rulerforever, the creator of a new heaven and earth. The angels are His worshippers, His messengers, and Hisservants to help those being saved. (1:5-14)
Sowe need to pay close attention to the Good News we have heard. If God's word to our forefathers throughangels was sure, and their disobedience earned punishment, how muchworse will it be for us if we neglect Jesus' word, confirmed by eyewitnessesand by God Himself through the miracles they worked? (2:1-4)
Heis the One predicted in Psalm 8, "made for a while lower than theangels" (to suffer death for us), but now "crowned with glory andhonor" (in heaven with the Father), for whom one day God will "putall things in subjection under His feet" (when He comes again). It was fitting for Him C in making us HisFather's children C to become like us bytaking on flesh and suffering death, in order to deliver us from death and tobecome our merciful high priest through the experience of His own suffering andtemptation. (2:5-18)
So,since we share in God's call, consider Jesus, the One He sent to call us: a messenger like Moses and a highpriest like Aaron. Like Moses, Hewas faithful. Unlike Moses, He wasnot just a house-servant, He was the house-builder, God Himself, the Father'sown Son. We, too, must be faithfulif we are to be a part of His house, just as the Spirit warned the people inPsalm 95: "Don't harden your hearts like your fathers did in thewilderness. I was angry with themand swore they would not enter My rest." Don't let this happen to you, but encourage one anotherdaily. For they too saw miraclesand received blessings, but were finally unable to enter the land because ofunbelief. (3:1-19)
Wetoo must take care lest we fail to enter God's promised rest. Not just the Canaan-rest (after all,this Psalm 95 was spoken centuries after Joshua's time), but God'screation-rest, when we will rest from our labors as God did from His. But to enter we must trust and obey,and not think that somehow we will get in by exception or oversight. God's word of judgment will not miss athing, and it is to Him that we must give an account. (4:1-13)
ButJesus is not only our messenger (like Moses), He is also our high priest C One who has enteredheaven itself C sinless, yet able tosympathize with us. So hold fast,draw near to God, and you will find mercy and grace for help in this time ofyour need (4:14-16)
Noticewhat a high priest is and does: amediator between God and men, he presents their gifts and sin-offerings to God,sympathizes with sinners (being weak himself), asks forgiveness forhis own sins as well, and is appointed by God rather than by himself. Compare Jesus: He, too was appointed by God (Ps 110),and made offerings through His prayers, but He learned obedience throughsuffering, was accepted for his perfect piety, so becoming the source ofeternal salvation to those who obey Him. God has designated Him a high priest of the Melchizedek kind. (5:1-10)
We'dlike to say more about Melchizedek, but you are too immature, still babiesneeding someone to give you milk when you ought to be teachers providing meatto others! Well, we can't lay thefoundation a second time. Thosewho've experienced it all and still turn away can't be brought back again; theyare like worthless land, only fit to be burned over. So we'll move on, since we think you're in better shape thanthis (having seen God's love working through you in service to others) and wewant you to regain your hope and finally inherit God's promises. (5:11-6:12)
God'spromises, after all, are certain. He made promises to Abraham with an oath, and Abraham (patientlywaiting) inherited. For just ashumans swear an oath by someone greater than themselves to put a questionbeyond dispute, so did God. Heswore by Himself (there being no one greater) to show believers His planswouldn't change. Thus we havegreat encouragement both from His mercy (in His promise) and His justice (tokeep his oath) that enters into His very nature and presence, where Jesus hasgone ahead for us, becoming a high priest forever, like Melchizedek. (6:13-20)
ThisMelchizedek (Gen 14) pronounced a blessing on Abraham and received hisofferings. From his name and titlehe is "king of righteousness" and "king of peace." With no genealogy, birth or deathrecord, he is made like the Son of God and is always a priest. Look how great he was! He received the tenth from theforefather of those Levites who would collect the tenth, though he himself wasno Levite. He was greater thanAbraham, pronouncing the blessing rather than receiving it. And Levi, so to speak, even paid himtithes. (7:1-10)
Nowif the Levitical priesthood (on which the Law was based) was sufficient, whydoes Psalm 110 predict another priest like Melchizedek rather than Aaron? Doesn't this imply a change in theLaw? Indeed, the One fulfillingthis prediction comes from Judah, a non-priestly tribe. And He, too, fits the psalm's predictionof a priest "forever," not by physical descendants but by anindestructable life. So this psalmpredicts the former commandments will be replaced by a better hope forcoming to God. A better hope andbetter covenant because it is established by God's oath and rests in thepermanent priesthood of Jesus, who can save forever because he lives forever.(7:11-28)
Thepoint is this: Jesus' ministry isin the true sanctuary in heaven, not the mere copy of it on earth. He has a more excellent ministry asmediator of a better covenant, founded on better promises. If there were nothing wrong with thefirst covenant, there would have been no place for a second. But God through Jeremiah (31:32-34)finds fault and predicts the replacement: "I'm going to make a new covenant with Israel, not like the old onewhich they broke and so I abandoned them. Instead I will put my law in their hearts and be their God; all willknow Me and I'll forgive their sins." (8:1-13)
Considerthe earthly sanctuary and services of the first covenant. The priests regularly entered the outerroom; the inner room only the high priest entered, only once a year, only withblood, and only for sins committed in ignorance. By this God shows us that the way to heaven has not beenopened while the tabernacle still stands, a symbol which cannot do what thespiritual reality will. (9:1-10)
Butwhen Christ came as high priest of the better covenant, He entered the bettertabernacle (not of this creation), offered His own blood (rather than that ofanimals), entered the holy place only once, and obtained eternal redemption. He is thus the mediator of a newcovenant, inaugurated by the sacrifice of Himself, to pay for the sinscommitted under the old covenant and to provide an eternal inheritance.(9:11-15)
Whereverthere is a covenant, it does not come into force until the inauguratingsacrifice has been killed. So atSinai, Moses sprinkled the blood of calves and goats on the covenant book, thepeople, the tabernacle and its vessels, saying "This is the blood of thecovenant." And by the Lawitself, nearly everything is cleansed with blood, and without blood there is noforgiveness. So too in heaven, theoriginals of which these are the earthly copies were cleansed, but with thebetter blood of Jesus, who entered into God's very presence, made a singleoffering of Himself, and will one day appear a second time to those who eagerlyawait Him. (9:16-28)
TheLaw, a shadow of the coming good but not the reality, could never by itssacrifices make the worshippers whole; otherwise they would stopcoming for forgiveness since their consciences wouldn't bother them. Rather the repeated sacrifices were arepeated reminder of sin, as animal blood cannot really take it away. In fact, God predicted the remedy inPsalm 40 where, when Jesus comes into the world, He says: "You didn't really want animalsacrifices, but you made me a body/slave. I've come, O God, as predicted in Scripture, to do Your will." As the passage notes, God wasn't reallysatisfied with animal sacrifice (though He commanded it). But by Jesus doing God's will, He takesaway the first covenant to establish the second. By one act in offering His body, Jesus makes us holy, whilethe repeated sacrifices of the earthly priests can never take away sin. And this is what the Holy Spirit saysin Jeremiah 31: "This is thecovenant I will make with them... their sins I will remember no more."(10:1-18)
Sincewe have this new and living way to God through Jesus, let us draw near to Him,hold fast the faith we profess, stimulate one another to love andgood deeds, keep meeting together, and all the more as you see the endapproaching. But if we keep onsinning after accepting the truth, there isn't any other sacrifice for sin,just the terrifying expectation of judgment. If rebellion against the Law of Moses meant death, what doyou think a person will deserve who has trampled on God's Son, treated Hisblood as unclean, and insulted the Holy Spirit? It is a terrible thing to face the righteous vengeance ofthe living God! (10:19-31)
Insteadyou should remember your former time of persecution, when you faced reproach,identified with suffering believers, lost property, yet rejoiced in theknowledge that God would provide better and lasting possessions. Don't throw all this away! You need to endure to His coming, notshrink back to destruction. Youneed to have faith for the preservation of your soul! (10:32-29)
Faithis assurance and conviction regarding the future and the unseen world. Our forefathers were commended forit. That's how we understand thatthe universe and its history were prepared by God's word from what we cannotsee. Consider the examples of Abeland Enoch. To come to God, youmust believe He exists and will reward those who really seek Him. Noah, too, had faith to believe whatGod warned him about; by building the ark, he saved his whole family andcondemned the world. (11:1-7)
Abraham,too, had faith. He didn't knowwhere he was going when he left Ur for Canaan, but he trusted God'spromise. He and his sons lived asaliens in the promised land, looking for a city built by God all the while theylived in tents. Sarah, too, wasable to conceive far beyond the normal age, since she trusted God. So from this sterile pair aninnumerable multitude were born, as God promised. Yet they all died still trusting, without receiving what waspromised, and only "seeing" it by the eyes of faith. They welcomed the promises, consideredthemselves aliens on earth, sought God's better country rather than returningto the old one. And God is notashamed of them, and indeed He has prepared a city for them. (11:8-16)
Abrahamshowed his faith by offering up Isaac, trusting God's promises and His abilityto raise the dead (from which in symbol he received him back). Isaac blessed Jacob and Esau about theunseen future. Jacob blessed thesons of Joseph, and Joseph predicted the Exodus and asked them to take hisbones along. (11:17-22)
Faithcaused Moses' parents to hide him in spite of Pharoah's orders. And faith led Moses to renouncehis royal position and cast his lot with God's people, putting the kind ofrejection Jesus faced ahead of Egypt's treasures. By faith they sprinkled the blood on their houses to savetheir firstborn, and passed through the Red Sea which drowned theEgyptians. By faith the walls ofJericho collapsed, but Rahab did not die with its inhabitants, for she too hadfaith. (11:23-31)
Timewould fail me to complete the list. Mighty acts of faith led to mighty victories, but also to defeat. Many were mistreated, tortured, evenmartyred, not accepting release in order to gain a better resurrection. The world didn't deserve these faithfulpeople! And they C though approved by Godfor trusting Him C have not yet receivedthe promises, for God will not bring them to pass until the full roll call ofthe faithful is complete. (11:32-40)
Withsuch a crowd of spectators watching, let us not get entangled but run our racewith endurance, fixing our eyes on Jesus, the starter and finisher, seeing howHe ran the race. And don't forgetthat this life is our childhood in which we are being disciplined by ourheavenly Father to prepare us for our coming of age. If we can see the benefit we derived from our earthlyfathers' discipline, can't we apply that to this situation? So shape up and watch where you'rerunning, lest you throw something out of joint. (12:1-13)
Chaseafter peace and holiness, which you have to have to see God. Watch out for bitterness, immoralityand even that "no-nonsense practicality" of Esau's, who sold hisbirthright when he was very hungry. He never could get it back, though he tried to with tears. (12:14-17)
Weare not those of the first covenant who came to Sinai, with the death penaltyfor touching the mountain, the blazing fire, the darkness, smoke and whirlwind,the trumpet blast and fearful voice, who begged to hear no more. We have come to Zion, God's city, theheavenly Jerusalem, the multitude of angels, to God, the Judge of all, to therighteous ones now made perfect, to Jesus, the mediator of that better covenant,whose sprinkled blood brings mercy rather than vengeance. (12:18-24)
Sosee to it that you don't turn back from the One who is speaking toyou. If they of Sinai whodisobeyed did not escape the One who warned them on earth, how shall we escapethe One who warns us from heaven? Yes, His voice shook the earth that day, but one day it will also shakethe heavens. And then both heavenand earth will be removed, along with all created things, so that the kingdomwhich cannot be shaken will be established. Since we are to receive such a kingdom, let's show God ourgratitude by serving him with reverence and awe. For God is a consuming fire. (12:25-29)
Continueloving one another; show hospitality even to strangers (some were angels!);remember those in prison for their faith; honor marriage; don't love money (Godwill supply), nor be afraid of what people can do to you. Don't forget your leaders; remembertheir example, and imitate their faith. Jesus doesn't change; He'll be with you as He was with them. (13:1-8)
Don'tbe led astray by false teaching: it's God's grace that gives strength, not special diets. And those who eat the temple sacrificescan't eat the Lord's supper. Justas animals whose blood was offered in the holy place had their bodies burnedoutside the camp, so Jesus, to sanctify His people, suffered outside thegate. So let us go out there withHim too, being despised as He was. For this is not our lasting city; we seek the one to come. Through Jesus, then, let us always offerup a sacrifice C praise to our God C and first-fruits C the speech of our lipsthanking Him. Don't neglect doinggood, God is pleased with that kind of sacrifice. Obey your leaders; they're guarding your souls; let them doit with joy. Pray for us, especiallythat I may come to you soon. (13:9-19)
Nowmay God, who raised our Good Shepherd Jesus, through His blood equip you to doHis will in everything, through Jesus Christ, to whom be the glory forever,Amen. (13:20-21)
Thanksfor bearing with this word of exhortation. I hope to see you soon, with Timothy, who has just beenreleased. My greetings toall. All from Italy send theirgreetings. God's grace be witheach of you. (13:22-25)
6.Outline: adapted from Hughes &Burdick in NIV Study Bible.
Prologue: God's RevelationClimaxes in the Son 1:1‑4
The Son Superior in His Person tothe Old Covenant Mediators 1:5-7:28
Christ Superior to Angels 1:5‑2:18
ChristSuperior to Moses (& Joshua) 3:1‑4:13
Christ Superior to Aaronic Priests 5:1‑7:28
The Son Superior in His Work tothe Old Covenant Provisions 8:1-10:39
Better Covenant 8:1-13
Better Sanctuary 9:1-12
Better Sacrifice 9:13-10:18
Exhortations 10:19-39
Final Plea for PerseveringFaith 10:19‑12:29
Concluding Exhortations 13:1-25
7.Exhortation Genre
Sources:
M. B. Thompson,"Teaching/Paraenesis," Dictionary of Paul & His Letters (IVP, 1993): 922-23.
Richard N. Soulen,"Paraenesis," Handbook of Biblical Criticism 2nd ed. (Knox, 1981):140-41.
a. Technical term for exhortation is paraenesis (Greek word for"advice")
b. Pauline Epistles: exhortation is oftengiven in a concluding section of letter:
Rom 12:1-15:13:
to righteousness in the church (ch 12)
to righteousness toward the world (ch 13)
to relations between weak and strong(14:1-15:12)
Gal 5:1-6:10:
exhortation to freedom (5:1-12)
life by the Spirit, not by the flesh (5:13-26)
call for mutual help (6:1-10)
Eph 4:1-6:20:
call to unity (4:1-6)
call to maturity (4:7-16)
call to renewal of personal life (4:17-5:20)
submission in personal relationships (5:21-6:9)
strength in the spiritual conflict (6:10-20)
Col 3:1-4:6:
the old self and new self (3:1-17)
rules for Christian households (3:18-4:1)
further instructions (4:2-6)
1 Thess 4:1-5:22:
about personal life (4:1-12)
about the second coming (4:13-5:11)
about church life (5:12-22)
c. In other Pauline letters, exhortation is scatteredthroughout:
1-2 Corinthians, Philippians, Pastorals
e.g., 1 Corinthians:
divisions (4:14-21)
moral and ethical disorders in the church (chs5-6)
instructions on marriage (ch 7)
questionable practices (10:23-11:1)
public worship (11:2-14:40)
d. General Epistles:
Hebrews calls itself a"word of exhortation" (13:22), has its exhortations interspersed withdoctrine.
James basically paraenesis throughout.
1 John, Jude, 2 Peterbuild paraenesis from dangers of heresy.
e. Characteristic Features ofExhortation:
Background in Greektraditional moral exhortation concerned with practical issues of living
Clear down-to-earth advice given
Typical topics: friends, sex, money, parents,food, etc.
f. Content:
(1) Conventional wisdom approved by society
(2) General in nature, so widely applicable
(3) So familiar that it is presented as reminder
(4) Illustrated by individual models
(5) Given by experienced teacher
g. Form:
(1) Sometimes simple imperatives
(2) Sometimes developedwith contrasts, illustrations, similes, proverbs, quotations
(3) Jewish paraenesis often used "twoways" motif:
Deut 30:15ff; Prov 4:18-19; Ps 1:6; T Asher1:3-5; 1QS 3:13-4:26
(4) Catalogs of virtues and/or vices common:
e.g., Gal 5:19-23; 2 Pet 1:5-8
(5) Household codes (German Haustafeln):
reciprocal duties of husbands/wives, parents/children, masters/slaves
B.James.
1. Author of Letter.
‑Several people named James (Gk Jacobos) in the NT. Most important ones:
James the Less (or Little)C apostle; know nothingabout him.
James, son of ZebedeeC apostle; martyred 44AD.
James, the brother ofJesus C in list of Matt 13:55.
-How does English get "James"for his name instead of "Jacob"?
-development of name in lateLatin into a variant Jacomus
-in medieval Europe, both carriedinto various languages
-probably King James hadsomething to do with choice in NT!
‑James (Jesus' brother) isusually assumed to be the author, as James of Zebedee died so early; James theLittle never seen as author except when identified w/ James, Lord's brother;latter is the James who would be recognized without any further identification,since he became the leader of the Jerusalem church. Liberals have sometimes suggested work is (1) pre-Xn or (2)a reworked Xn homily from 70-130 AD.
‑Peter after his escapesays "Tell James ..." (Acts 12:17).
‑At Jerusalem Council (c50AD) James summarizes the arguments and provides the suggestion adopted assolution (Acts 15:13).
‑At Paul's visit (c58 AD)he gives Paul advice (Acts 21:18).
=> James was in charge.
‑Prob Apostles did not wantto lead Jerusalem church themselves, as they needed freedom to travel asevangelists, church planters, overseers, etc.
‑James' relation to Jesus:"Lord's brother" (Gal 1:19; Mt 13:55)
‑3 suggestions proposed here formeaning of "brother":
1) Helvidian - half‑brother(James son of both Joseph & Mary)
(Helvidius; the common Protestant view)
Joseph Mary God
|_______| |______|
| |
James Jesus
2) Epiphanian - step‑brother (James son of Josephby his previous wife)
(Epiphanius; rarer Protestant view)
1st wife Joseph Mary God
|_______| |______|
| |
James Jesus
‑Claims Joseph awidower, with children by previous marriage.
3) Hieronymian C cousin (James son of Alpheus & Mary'ssister)
(Jerome;standard Catholic view)
Alpheus Mary 1 Mary 2 God
|________| sisters |________|
| |
James Jesus
‑Jerome argued that Mary 1(mother of James) was the one at the cross. (this entire discussion can befound in his treatise Against Helvidius)
‑He points out OT passageswhere more distant relatives (Laban ‑ Jacob, Abraham ‑ Lot) arecalled "brothers."
‑It does seem ratherunlikely to have 2 daughters from the same immediate family with the same firstname (Miriam was not so popular as later in Catholic circles).
2) and 3) have Mary remain a virgin, and soJames is not a blood relative of Jesus in these 2 schemes
‑James' conversion:
‑He was not a Christianduring Jesus' ministry.
‑Presumably became aChristian when Jesus appeared to him after His resurrection (1 Cor. 15).
‑Is mentioned at thebeginning of Acts, and quickly became an important figure by the 50's.
‑His death:
-Not recorded in NT, where Actsdoes not refer back to Jerusalem after Paul's arrest in 58 AD
-Killed by stoning 62 AD underhigh priest Ananus before new Roman governor could reach Judea (cf. Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.1).
2.Date of Letter of James.
Hard to prove authorship at thisremove, but "there is no sentence in the letter which a Jew could havewritten but a Xn could not" and the letter shows several primitivefeatures which fit James' lifetime.
If James, the Lord's brother, isauthor, then the book must have been written before 62 AD, when he died.
J Gresham Machen and P H Davids suggestshortly before Jerus Council (late 40s)
‑Is reasonable: after 44 AD theapostles "go into hiding" and James is the important leader in thechurch which is still mainly Jewish.
‑James is writing to dispersedJewish-Xn congregations.
-helps explain problem w/ faith/worksdispute below.
So James is one of the earliest booksof the NT.
‑Perhaps Matthew or Galatians isearlier, perhaps not.
3.Content of James.
a. Addressed to "the 12 tribes whoare dispersed abroad," 1:1.
‑Apparently to JewishChristians outside Palestine.
b. Claimed contradiction of Paul onsalvation.
James teaches salvation by faith plusworks?
2:14 Can faith (without works) save a man?
2:17 "Faith, if it has no works, isdead."
Paul teaches salvation by faith withoutworks?
Gal 2:16 "... by the works of the Law shallno flesh be justified."
2:21 "... if righteousness comesthrough the Law, then Christ died needlessly."
3:21 "... for if a law had been givenwhich could make alive, then righteousness would indeed be by the law."
Eph 2:8‑9 "... youhave been saved through faith ... not as a result of works..."
‑These are verbal, but not real, contradictions whichcan be resolved by looking at the contexts. "Confusion" in terms suggests a pre‑50 date.
James recognizes that one cannot keepthe Law perfectly:
2:10 "For whoever keeps the whole lawand yet stumbles in one point, he has become guilty of all."
3:1‑2 "... For we all stumble in many ways. ..." ‑"stumble" is same verbin both verses.
‑Lawis like a soap bubble: one hole and it breaks.
‑Shows wecannot be acceptable to God by keeping the law.
‑James isemphasizing that a real Christian will have works in his life (cf. 1 John andRom. 6).
Paul's teaching is the same as James' ‑salvation is by dependence on Christ, not on our works.
Gal 5:3 "I testify to everyman who receives circumcision that he is under obligation to keep the wholelaw."
Gal 6:13 "For those who arecircumcised do not even keep the law themselves..."
Gal 5:6 "For in Christ Jesusneither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but faith working through love."
Paul and James are here responding todifferent heresies:
‑James ‑ antinomian: faithonly, can live as you please.
‑Paul ‑ legalism: works arerequired to save.
c. James is more practical thandoctrinal in emphasis.
‑Similar to many OTbooks in this regard;
-And to Jesus' teaching inGospels.
d. James is familiar with the Sermon onthe Mount.
James Matthew
1:22 7:24‑27‑ doers, not hearers.
2:5 5:3‑ poor of this world.
2:10 5:19‑ one point of the law.
3:12 7:16‑ fruits
4:11 7:1f‑ judging
5:9 7:1f ‑ judging
5:12 5:34‑37‑ oath, yes yes
James 1:27; 2:5,15 are likethe judgment scene in Mt. 25.
‑Also check crossreferences on 1:2,20; 2:8; 4:4.
‑Matthew may have beenwritten by this time, so James may have used it. But James could be based on common apostolic preachingmaterial.
4. Outline of Letter of James.
a. Thematic (after Davids)
1) Introduction
Greeting (1:1)
Themes Presented (1:2-27)
Test of Faith
Speech and Spirit
Piety and Poverty
2) Themes Developed
Piety and Poverty (2:1-26)
Speech and Spirit (3:1-4:12)
Test and Result (4:13-5:6)
3) Conclusion(5:7-20)
with themes restated
b. Acrostic (after Huddleston)
1) Working patience through trials.
2) Obedience accompanies true faith.
3) Restraining the unbridled tongue.
4) Keeping calm in conflicts.
5) Sick and suffering saints.
5.Argument of James (a condensed explanatory paraphrase)
FromJames, a servant of God and Christ:
Greetingsto the scattered tribes of Israel! (1:1)
Youshould rejoice in all your difficulties, because they are sent to give youpatience and maturity. Ask God forspiritual wisdom to go through them, and learn to trust him as he leads. We must not let circumstances throw usoff balance, for then we will not get what God is giving us. (1:2-8)
Youwho are poor should rejoice about how rich you are in Christ, and you richconsider how poor you are, for all your riches will one day pass away. We all need to be steadfast in ourtrials, for then we will one day be crowned with eternal life. (1:9-12)
Weshould not view temptation as something God is doing to us; the temptationcomes from our own sinful nature, which seeks to lead us into sin anddeath. All the really good thingscome from God. He cannot changeand he has given us new life. (1:13-18)
Allof us need to be quick at listening and slow at speaking or getting angry, forthese work against God's plan for us. Humbly trust God's word to work in you and to rescue you from yoursins. And don't merely listen toGod's word, obey it! Those whojust listen never find out what they're really like; those who obey do, andthey are the ones who will finally receive the blessing. Real religion is controlling ourspeech, caring for those in need, and not being corrupted by the sin around us.(1:19-25)
Asthose who trust in our glorious Lord Jesus, we must not act as though we canjudge people's worth by their wealth. After all, God chose the poor to inherit his kingdom, and it is the richwho oppress you, sue you, and mock the name of Jesus. To love your neighbor as yourself, you cannot showfavoritism; and if you break this command, you have broken them all. We must live and speak as those who aregoing to be judged as we have judged; so show mercy that you may receive mercy.(2:1-13)
Whatgood is a faith that has no works to back it up? Is that saving faith? What good is it if we wish a person well but never help them? We show our faith by how we act, andmere belief in God is something even the demons have. Look at how Abraham's faith was demonstrated by hiswillingness to offer up his son Isaac, thus demonstrating that he trusted God,was really righteous and really God's friend. It is our actions that declare us to be righteous, not meretalk of faith. Rahab, too, showedher righteousness by her actions. Living faith produces works. (2:14-26)
Itis dangerous to be a teacher, because teachers face a stricter judgment, andthe tongue is especially difficult to control. Like the bit in a horse's mouth, the rudder of a ship, or aspark in a forest, the tongue can produce enormous effects. When it is used for evil, it will ruinyour whole life and then will itself be ruined in hell. Though humans have learned to tame allsorts of wild animals, they have never been able to tame the tongue, alwaysactive, always poisonous. Look howinconsistent it is, praising God but cursing people! (3:1-12)
Wisdomand understanding are demonstrated by goodness and humility, not by envy andambition, which some boast about and others hide away. That sort of "wisdom" isearthly and devilish, for envy and ambition lead to all sorts of evil. Heavenly wisdom is pure, peace-loving,considerate, merciful, and sincere, producing a crop of righteousness.(3:13-18)
Wheredoes fighting and quarreling come from? Doesn't it come from your evil desires? You covet something, then you fight, even kill, to get it. Instead you should ask God for it, andif you don't get it from him, it's because you want it for the wrongreasons. But rather you are beingunfaithful to your marriage vows to God, you are getting in bed with the world,and thus making yourself an enemy of God. His Spirit is very jealous that we be faithful to him. He will give us far more than wedeserve, if we will humble ourselves. So submit to God, and then you can resist the devil. Draw near to him,cleanse yourself, repent and mourn, and God will lift you up. Don't slander and judge one another,for that is taking upon yourself a job that God reserves for himself. (4:1-12)
Anddon't boast about tomorrow, as though you were God and could control what isgoing to happen. Your life is sofragile that you don't even know you will be around tomorrow! Instead you should acknowledge yourdependence on God, rather than bragging about what you're going to do. And if you know what you ought to do,then it is a sin not to do it. (4:13-17)
Nowlisten, you rich people who oppress the poor. You should be wailing about the disaster that iscoming! All your wealth willcorrode and rot, and it will testify against you. The cries of those you have mistreated have risen to God. Your luxury has fattened you up for theslaughter, in repayment for the innocent people you have killed. (5:1-6)
Sobe patient, my suffering brothers. The Lord is coming. Waitfor him like a good farmer waits for the rains and the harvest. Don't let your bad circumstances leadyou to complain against one another, or you will face the Lord's judgment whenhe comes. Remember the prophets,especially Job, how they were patient in suffering, what God did for them, andhow we honor them today. God is fullof compassion and mercy. Trust himand don't try to take things into your own hands. (5:7-12)
Areyou in trouble? Pray! Are you happy? Praise God! Are you sick? Call for the elders to pray for you and anoint you, that the Lord mayraise you up and forgive you. Theprayers of righteous people are powerful; remember how God answered Elijah'sprayers. If anyone wanders awayand someone brings him back, he saves him from death and rescues him from manysins. (5:13-20)
6.Diatribe AGenre@
a. Common Modern Usage: Webster'sNew World Dictionary,College Ed. (1954):
a bitter, abusive criticism or denunciation.
b. Historical (Literary) Definition: Dictionaryof Paul and His Letters (1993):
amethod or mode of teaching and exhortation used in the ancient schools ofphilosophy
c. History
originated among Sophists, certainly before 200BC
adopted by Cynics and Stoics
used by traveling philosophers who taught onpopular level
not strictly a literarygenre, but an oral teaching method which could, however, be used in writtenform
typically a lecture orwriting on moral or philosophical topics of popular interest, e.g., divineprovidence, self-control, self-sufficiency
Stoic philosopherEpictetus (AD 55-135) noted for his use of this method
in the NT, Paul andJames especially use the techniques of diatribe.
d. Characteristics
not a genre per se, so no set structurelike (say) a letter
uses a number of dialogue type features:
imaginary opponents or interlocutors
questions and answers given
hypothetical objections considered
false conclusions refuted/rejected
uses a number of standard features ofGreco-Roman rhetoric:
amplification – adding details
personification – referring to a thing asif a person
maxim/proverb – brief statement of generalprinciple or moral rule
censure/praise – negative or positiveevaluation of person, principle
saying/action of famous people
comparison
historical example – reference to famousevent or person
list of virtues/vices
parallelism – lines which have similarfeatures
antithesis – negative parallelism orcontrast of opposites
irony – meaning intended is opposite ofwhat the words normally mean
sarcasm – sharp, cutting remark orput-down, often ironic
paradox – statement which seemscontradictory, mistaken or absurd, which is
nevertheless true
C.The Petrine Epistles.
1. Authenticity.
a. 1 Peter
‑Denied by many liberals,although accepted by some.
‑Usual objection is that itsounds too much like Paul.
‑If Peter and Paulare that close and have the same view of Christ, it is hard to postulate asplit between them (and the Gospels also) as liberals do.
‑If Peter, Paul andthe Gospels look too much alike, it is hard to propose that they are wrong.
‑Apostolic unity istough on most liberal models.
‑Conservativeliberals say Peter's view is original.
‑1 Peter was recognizedearly in the Christian church.
-Evidence for its use aswidespread as for most NT epistles.
‑Authorship then wasnever doubted.
b. 2 Peter
‑Almost universallyrejected by liberals.
Their arguments:
1) Style is different from 1 Peter=> different author.
‑Liberals havesplit up the Pauline Epistles this way also.
2) 2 Peter refers to Paulineepistles as Scripture, 2 Pet. 3:15‑16.
‑Baur did notlike the favorable statement about Paul since he thought Peter and Paul did notget along.
‑Liberalsgenerally reject idea that NT was viewed as Scripture in the first century;that would imply that great care would have been taken so no forgeries wouldhave gotten into canon.
‑They typicallydate 2 Peter at c130 AD to overcome this problem.
3) Resemblance to Jude.
‑Many liberalsclaim 2 Peter borrows from Jude.
=> it is notby Peter since an apostle would not have copied from a lesser figure, and Judeis late.
4) There are no clear referencesto 2 Peter until late 2nd century.
‑Some leadersin the early church (late 2nd and 3rd cent.) questioned authorship.
Answers to liberal arguments:
1) Style difference.
1 Pet. 5:12 "throughSilvanus ... I have written"
‑Suggeststhat Silvanus is co‑author of 1 Peter.
‑If thisis Silas who was with Paul on 2nd MJ, he prob had better Greek language abilitythan Peter.
‑But we don't knowfor sure. The style of 2 Peter isnot bad Greek, but it is different.
-Despite these differences,no book is closer in style to 2 Peter than is 1 Peter.
2) Favorable reference to Paul aswriting Scripture.
‑This is only aproblem if you reconstruct a history in which Peter and Paul did not get along.
‑But from Acts andPauline Epistles, we see they did agree.
‑Peterrecognized Paul's ministry to the Gentiles.
‑Peter wouldhave known of Paul's writings as he was living at the same time.
‑But ... did theapostles expect more Scripture?
‑If so, who did theyexpect to write it?
‑Jesus told them thatthe Holy Spirit would teach them.
‑They were given theright Ato bind and to loose.@
‑In Rabbinicidiom, this phrase means "they have the authority to set up rules and tosay others are no longer in force.@
=> they expected towrite Scripture themselves.
‑2 Pet. 1:12f =>Peter knew he would die soon and wrote "I will be diligent that at anytime after my departure you may be able to call these things tomind."
‑Peter claimedhe wrote something that was to be kept, i.e., it should be counted asScripture.
‑Paul quotes Luke asScripture (1 Tim. 5:18 citing Luke 10:7).
‑Apparently, Judequotes 2 Peter as Scripture (see below).
So the concept ofScripture being written by the apostles existed while the apostles were stillaround.
3) Resemblances to Jude.
‑2 Peter doesresemble Jude in several places.
‑Possibilities: 2 Petcopied Jude, Jude copied 2 Pet, or both copied some other source.
‑Actually looks likeJude copied from 2 Peter (see below under Jude).
4) Lack of early attestation.
Should not be overemphasized. Yes, no other book in canon is sopoorly attested, but no other book excluded from canon is as wellattested. Some book in NT has to belast!
Possibleexplanations:
a) 2 Peter did not existuntil late (c130 AD).
‑Liberalslike this, but it creates a problem for their position.
‑Howwould it get into the canon if written 35 years after any other canonicalmaterial?
‑Consideringthe many apocryphal works being written in 2nd cen, incl several ascribed toPeter, why did only this one get in?
b) It existed, but it wasnot mentioned.
‑Isa statistical fluke: we see that theApostolic Fathers did not quote from some OT books which they accepted ascanonical.
c) It did not have the widecirculation that 1 Peter did.
‑Nolocations of recipients are given in 2 Pet (unlike 1 Pet, which was sent to Xnsin a large area), so it may have been written to a smaller group.
However, there are someapparent allusions to 2 Peter in the Apostolic Fathers.
1 Clement 11 mayrefer to 2 Pet 2:6‑9.
‑Notespiety of Lot, God knows how to rescue the godly.
Ps Barnabas 15 "day of Lord shall be as a 1000 years"is quoted as if it is Scripture.
‑Ps 90:4has same length of time, but opposite order.
‑But 2Pet 3:8 is very close.
‑Perhapsquoting Jesus directly, but is more likely quoting 2 Peter.
Again, Judeapparently quotes 2 Peter (see below, under Jude).
2.Date of 1 & 2 Peter.
Taking 1 and 2 Peter to be genuine,then they must have been written before 68 (Nero's suicide) since Peter waskilled under Nero's reign.
2 Pet 3:1 "This is the second letter I am writing to you"
=>2 Peter was written after 1 Peter (with some overlap of recipients)
-1 Peter is worded like the persecutionhas already begun, implying a date no earlier than fall of 64 AD.
‑Was written to warn churches ofthe change in Roman policy.
2 Peter ‑ probably close to hisdeath, but not in prison yet.
=> before68.
‑Thus the range 64‑68 AD isbest for both, with 1 Peter earlier.
3.Content of 1 Peter.
a. Is written from "Babylon"(5:13). "She" here isprobably the church, rather than Peter's wife.
Where is "Babylon"?
1) Probably not the ancient city itselfas it did not exist in NT times. However, that region of Mesopotamia was called "Babylon" bythe Jews.
2) The Cairo area was also called"Babylon" in NT times.
‑Cannot rule out the possibilitythat Peter went to either or both of these places, as they each had largeJewish populations; but connection of 1 Pet with Mark and Silas makes 3) belowmore likely.
3) Figurative for "Rome."
‑Rev 17:9 refers toRome under the guise of Babylon
-Aseven hills@ seems to be a clear referenceto Rome as neither of the literal places Mesopotamia or Egypt had hills and the"seven hills" a standard way of referring to Rome in ancient writers.
‑Peter may havegotten the figure from OT background of Israel's enemies rather than fromRevelation, which prob was not written yet.
Why would Peter use thisexpression?
‑If Nero was lookingfor Christian leaders, they would not want to disclose where they were in aletter which might be intercepted.
4) Could possibly mean "thedispersion" since Babylon was the reason the Jews were scattered in OT.
‑But "Babylon"seems to refer to a location, not a condition.
What early evidence we have gives the bestsupport for 3), as we are fairly sure Peter was in Rome, but know nothing abouthis being in Mesopotamia or Egypt.
b. 1 Peter is written toAsia Minor (to all but 2 south coastal provinces), largely to areas where weknow that Paul ministered.
-Perhaps Peter had ministered in theseareas (recall that the Spirit kept Paul out of Bithynia).
‑Perhaps Paul is in Spain andunable to warn his churches of the sudden outbreak of persecution, so Peterdoes.
‑Peter seems to be writing mainlyto Gentiles, not Jews.
c.Main theme: to encourage Xns in midst of persecution.
‑See several references topersecution:
1:6‑7 C "distressed bytrials ... tested by fire."
4:4 C verbal abuse.
4:12‑13 C "fiery ordeal ...testing ... sufferings of X."
4:16 C "suffers as aChristian."
‑Sounds like there is organizedpersecution throughout Asia Minor, suggesting that Nero's persecution extendedbeyond Rome (consistent with Pliny's letter later).
‑Peter encourages believers in 2ways:
1) To look back to Christ's suffering
-we "share" in it in the sense thatthe world hated him and hates us also; cf. John 17:14.
1:11 C Prophets predicted Christ's suffering.
2:21f C Christ's suffering isan example (like Heb. 12).
3:17f C Suffer for doingright...
4:1 C Prepare to suffer like Christ did.
4:13 C Share sufferings of Christ.
2) To look forward to His coming.
1:3f C "A living hope... imperishableinheritance"
3:22 C Jesus has already gone to heaven.
4:7 C "The end of all things is at hand..."
4:13 C Will rejoice at His coming.
d.A second theme: Peter exhorts the saints to holy living.
1:13ff C "Gird up your minds foraction..."
2:12ff C "Keep your behaviorexcellent..."
4:1ff C "Live no longerfor the lusts of men..."
4.Outline of 1 Peter.
a. Topical (after Willingale)
1) Address and greeting (1:1-2)
2) Thanksgiving (1:3-12)
3) The implications of salvation (1:13-2:10)
4) Christian relationships (2:11-3:12)
5) Suffering and the will of God (3:13-22)
6) Holy living (4:1-11)
7) The fiery trial (4:12-19)
8) Address to elders (5:1-4)
9) General address and benediction (5:5-11)
10) Personal comments and greetings (5:12-14)
b. Acrostic (after Huddleston)
1) Trials prove your faith.
2) Respond as Christ did.
3) Innocent conscience quiets foes.
4) Attitudes pleasing to God.
5) Leaders to serve humbly.
c. Argument of 1 Peter (a condensedexplanatory paraphrase):
Peterto God=s chosen C strangers in this worldC scattered throughoutTurkey: (1:1-2)
PraiseGod for the new birth he=s given you, for animperishable inheritance, for protection to keep you safe till he comes. Rejoice in these, even though you nowsuffer all sorts of trials. The trialsare designed to demonstrate the true character of your faith and to bring praiseto God and yourselves at Jesus= coming. Youlove Jesus and trust him (though you haven=t seen him), and this fills you with joy as yoursouls are being rescued from sin. (1:3-9)
Theprophets wondered what it was all about when the Spirit predicted thesufferings of Jesus and the glory to follow. But he told them that these things were to help you C things that even theangels long to understand. (1:10-12)
Soget ready for action: put all your hope in what Jesus will give you when hecomes rather than in the things you longed for when you were unsaved. Be holy, just as God is holy; that=s what he=s called you to. Since your Father is an impartialjudge, show him the proper respect and remember what it cost him to rescue youfrom sin, the death of Jesus, his lamb. (1:13-21)
Sinceyou have been purified, love one another truly and deeply, for your new birthis forever, just like God=s word which caused itto happen. So get rid of all sinagainst one another, and desire God=s word so that you may become mature. (1:22-2:3)
Justas Jesus is the Living Stone, so you are living stones God is building into atemple. Remember the propheciesabout Jesus C the chosen cornerstone,the one rejected by the builders, the stumbling stone C so unbelievers stumbleas predicted. You, however, arethe chosen people, the royal priesthood declaring the praises of God whorescued you from darkness. Onceyou were not a people, but now you are his. Since you are aliens in this world, stay away from itsdesires, and live such good lives that unbelievers who slander you will finallyhave to admit your good deeds. (2:4-12)
ForGod=s sake submit to earthlyrulers, who exist to punish wrong and reward right. God wants you to silence slander by doing good. You are free, but your freedom is notto be an excuse to do evil, but an opportunity to serve God. So respect fellow believers, fear God,and honor the king. If you are aslave, serve and respect your master, whether he deserves it or not. It is praiseworthy if we sufferunjustly for God, but what is so great about suffering if we deserve it? Follow Jesus= example, who when hesuffered, committed no sin, did not retaliate nor threaten, but trusted in God,who judges justly. Look at what heaccomplished for us in so doing! (2:13-25)
Wives,submit to your husbands in the same way. They may be converted by your godly behavior even if they won=t listen to yourwords. Don=t depend on externalbeauty, but develop an internal beauty, like Sarah did, who trusted God and submittedto her husband rather than giving way to fear. Husbands, be considerate; treat your wives with respect asyou would delicate china, as co-heir with you, or your prayers will behindered. (3:1-7)
Allof you should live in harmony, full of sympathy, love, compassion andhumility. Repay mistreatment withblessing, since this is what you were called to do. Who will harm you if you are eager to do good? But even if someone does harm you, don=t be afraid. Set Jesus apart as your Lord, and beready to respond when anyone asks you why you believe what you do. Keep a clear conscience, so that thosewho slander you will be ashamed. Better to suffer for doing good than for doing evil. That=s what Jesus did, and the Spirit raised him tolife. Through the Spirit hepreached to spirits in bondage in the days of Noah, yet only eight people weresaved. You are saved through waterjust as they were, a picture of cleansing, resurrection and union with Christ.(3:8-22)
SinceChrist has so suffered, arm yourselves with the same attitude and be done withsin. You=ve already spent enoughtime sinning, now live for God. Though pagans will think you strange for not joining in their sins, andrevile you for it, they will have to answer for all this one day. That is why the Gospel has beenproclaimed, that we may live for God though we are judged by men. (4:1-6)
Theend is near, so be clear-thinking and self-controlled in order to be able topray. Love each other deeply,enjoy being hospitable, use your gifts to serve others, so being a channel ofGod=s grace. Speak God=s words, serve with your God-givenstrength, so God may be praised through Jesus. (4:7-11)
Don=t be surprised at thesetrials you=re suffering. You are actually participating in Jesus= sufferings, and youwill be overjoyed when he comes. It is a blessing to be insulted for Christ=s sake; it shows we are his. Don=t let your suffering be for criminal behavior,but don=t be ashamed to sufferfor Jesus. Judgment must beginwith us, but what will finally happen to those who continue in unbelief? So commit yourself to our faithfulCreator and keep doing what is right. (4:12-19)
Toyou elders, my appeal is: Beshepherds over God=s flock C not unwillingly, orgreedily, or tyrannically C but eagerly, selflessly, serving as examples. Jesus, the Chief Shepherd, will rewardyou when he comes. Young men,submit to those who are older, humble yourselves under God=s hand, and he will oneday exalt you. Be self-controlledand alert, for the devil is seeking to devour you. Resist him by standing firm in your faith, and remember thatother Christians are suffering likewise. The God who has graciously called you to eternal glory in Christ willrestore you after you have suffered a while. To him be the power forever. Amen. (5:1-11)
Withthe help of Silas I=ve written to you toencourage you to stand fast in God=s grace. She who is in Babylon sends her greetings, so does Mark. Greet one another, and God=s peace be upon you.(5:12-13)
5.Content of 2 Peter.
‑Address is very general (1:1)
"To those who have received a faith of thesame kind as ours"
‑Does this cover allChristians or some partial group?
‑There seems to be someoverlap with audience of 1 Peter, as in 3:1 Peter says, "this is the 2ndtime I've written you..."
‑Peter's intention here is toleave them his reminder of certain key themes:
growth (ch 1)
apostasy (ch 2)
2nd coming (ch 3)
6.Outline of 2 Peter.
a. Topical (after EMB Green)
1) Salutation (1:1-2)
2) Truth of Xn faith attested (1:3-21)
a) personal experience (1:3-11)
b) testimony of eyewitnesses (1:12-18)
c) fulfillment of prophecy (1:19-21)
3) Condemnation of false prophets (2:1-3:10)
a) share judgment of OT false prophets (2:1-9)
b) unrestrained sinners (2:10-18)
c) lead to slavery (2:19-22)
d) doubt 2nd coming (3:1-4)
e) but pictured by Flood (3:5-7)
f) delayed by God's mercy (3:8-9)
g) certain to come (3:10)
4) Duties of believers (3:11-18)
a) be holy (3:11-14)
b) recognize God's patience (3:15-16)
c) watch out for deception (3:16-17)
d) grow in grace (3:18)
5) Benediction (3:18)
b. Acrostic (after Huddleston)
1) Add virtues to faith.
2) Deeds of false teachers.
3) Diligence before Lord's return.
D.Jude.
1. Author.
‑Have 7 different Jude's orJudas's in the NT:
1) Ancestor of Jesus(Luke 3:30),
2) Galilean rebelleader (Acts 5:37),
3) Iscariot (Mark3:19),
4) of Damascus (Acts9:11),
5) Barsabbas (Acts15:22),
6) Apostle [son orbrother of James] (Luke 6:16, Acts 1:13, John 14:22) also called
Thaddeus or Lebbaeus.
7) Brother of Jamesand Jesus (Matt. 13:55, Mk. 6:3).
‑"Jude","Judas", and "Judah" all translate the same Hebrew name.
(In English we tend toassociate Jude = good, Judas = bad, Judah = Jewish, but this is artificial).
‑Most of the above 7 areobscure, but show that Judah was a very popular name in NT times (nearly everyhousehold had one).
‑The author of Jude (if anyof these) was prob either:
#6: "Jude, of James"(genitive of relation, so connection is not made explicit in Luke 6:16).
#7: "Jude, brother of Jamesand Jesus" (note Matt. 13:55).
‑#7 seems best, since Jamesthe brother of Jesus became the most famous James (leader of Jerus. church) andonly one whose identity would be assumed if no further information wasprovided.
‑The Roman Catholic Churchidentifies the Apostles James and Jude with Jesus' brothers James and Jude(seen as cousins).
‑Protestants say this isimpossible as Jesus' brothers did not believe in Him until after Hisresurrection, whereas Jesus certainly chose professing believers as hisapostles.
2.Connection with 2 Peter.
‑There are very strong parallelsbetween Jude and 2 Peter2:1‑3:2.
‑This implies one of the followingrelationships:
(where--> indicates direction of flow of information)
Jude ‑‑> Peter; Peter ‑‑> Jude; 3rd source ‑‑> both J& P.
‑Cannot rule out the 3rd sourceidea as each could be drawing from some unrecorded comments of Jesus.
Similaritiesof Jude (left) and 2 Peter (right):
| (4) Certain persons have crept in unnoticed, those who were long beforehand marked out for this condemnation. | | (2:1) There will also be false teachers among you, who will secretly introduce destructive heresies ... bringing swift destruction upon themselves. |
| | | |
| (5‑7) [destruction brought upon Jews in wilderness, angels, Sodom and Gomorrah]: And angels who did not keep their own domain, but abandoned their proper abode, He has kept in eternal bonds under darkness for the judgment of the great day. Just as Sodom & Gomorrah and the cities around them, since in the same way as these they indulged in gross immorality and went after strange flesh, are exhibited as an example, | | (2:4‑7) [destruction upon angels, people at flood, Sodom and Gomorrah]: For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed them to pits of darkness, reserved for judgment; and if He condemned the cities of Sodom & Gomorrah to destruction by reducing them to ashes, having made them an example to those who would live ungodly thereafter. |
| | | |
| (8‑10) Yet in the same manner these men, also by dreaming, defile the flesh, and reject authority, and revile angelic majesties. But Michael the archangel, when he disputed with the devil and argued about the body of Moses, did not dare pronounce against him a railing judgment, but said, "The Lord rebuke you." But these men revile the things which they do not understand, and the things which they know by instinct, like unreasoning animals, by these things they are destroyed. | | (2:10‑11) and especially those who indulge the flesh in its corrupt desires and despise authority. Daring, self‑willed, they do not tremble when they revile angelic majesties, whereas angels who are greater in might and power do not bring a reviling judgment against them before the Lord. But these, like unreasoning animals, born as creatures of instinct to be captured and killed, reviling where they have no knowledge, will in the destruction of those creatures be destroyed. |
| | | |
| (11) [examples of Cain, Balaam, & Korah]: they have gone in the way of Cain, and ran greedily after the error of Balaam for reward, and perished in the gainsaying of Korah | | (2:15) [example of Balaam]: following the way of Balaam, the son of Beor, who loved the wages of unrighteousness |
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| (12) These men are those who are hidden reefs in your love feasts | | (2:13) They are stains and blemishes, reveling in their deceptions, as they carouse with you |
| | | |
| (12‑13) clouds without water, carried along by winds, autumn trees without fruit, doubly dead, uprooted; wild waves of the sea, casting up their own shame like foam; wandering stars, for whom the black darkness has been reserved forever. | | (2:17) These are springs without water, and mists driven by a storm, for whom the black darkness has been reserved. |
| | | |
| (17‑18) remember the words that were spoken beforehand by the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ, that they were saying to you, "In the last time there shall be mockers, following after their own ungodly lusts" | | (3:2‑3) remember the words spoken beforehand by the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior spoken by your apostles. Know this first of all, that in the last days mockers will come with their mocking, following after their own lusts and saying ... |
| | | |
‑Liberalssay Jude is used by 2 Peter so they can date 2 Peter late.
‑Conservatives say 2 Peter is usedby Jude as this seems most natural.
‑Note in 2:1, Peter predicts thatfalse teachers and prophets will come into the church.
‑Jude 4 sees the falseteachers as already present.
‑In 3:2‑3, Peterreminds readers of predictions made by the apostles.
‑Jude 17‑18 quotes3:2‑3 saying, "The apostles warned you..."
‑Thus Jude reads most naturally asif Jude is reminding his readers of predictions made by Peter before he died,which are now (some years later) starting to come true.
‑Liberals to avoid this must saythat 2 Peter is "cleverly disguised" to look as if Jude is quotingfrom it. This is a fraud theory(and not a very convincing one), though they try to cover it over by sayingthat fake-authorship was common (perhaps) and accepted in the early church asOK (but no evidence for this).
3.Connection of Jude with Apocalyptic Literature.
‑2 passages in Jude seem to quotefrom the OT Pseudepigrapha.
a. Jude 14‑15 draws from 1 Enoch60:8 ("7th from Adam") and esp from 1 Enoch 1:9 (long quote about theLord coming).
‑Who quotes from whom, or isthere a common source?
‑Seems most likely that Jude isquoting Enoch, since scraps of 1 Enoch 1 have been found at Qumran whichcontain fragments of the quote Jude cites, so 1 Enoch existed before Judewritten.
‑The quote does fit naturallyinto the 1 Enoch 1 context.
‑Of course, Jude may be drawingfrom a common oral tradition behind 1 Enoch.
b. Jude 9 (Michael and the body ofMoses) refers to an incident not recorded in the Bible.
‑Several early church fathers(Clement, Origen, Didymus) tell us that this is a quotation from "TheAssumption of Moses," although our copies of this work quit before thispoint in the narrative isreached.
‑Liberals use these quotations to discredit Jude (obviously he feltthey were inspired => early church had no good criteria concerning what was"Scripture").
‑Occult types say these citations validate the apocalypticliterature, thus they get interested in "the lost books of Moses" andother flaky books.
‑Conservatives often wonder whatto do with these quotations.
‑However, quoting a work does notprove it is Scripture:
Paul cites Greek poets in Acts 17:28 (Aratus orCleanthes): "we are his offspring"; 1 Cor. 15:33 (Menander):"bad company corrupts good morals"; Titus 1:12 (Epimenides):"Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons."
‑Secular sources do have validtruth. We need to see if the NTcites them as "scripture" or as merely correct on this point.
‑What Jude cites from 1 Enoch is atrue statement about the Lord's coming. But did Enoch ever say this?
‑There is a possibility that thisquotation does preserve the antediluvian speech of Enoch, but it seems slight.
‑Oral traditions fromthat far back are shaky.
‑It is possible that Jude isreferring to the book, not the person Enoch when he cites this (cp "theLaw says ...").
‑Thus Jude may be citing a bookaccepted by the heretics he is arguing with to show that even their ownauthorities condemn their behavior.
‑Why would an antinomian grouprespect Enoch?
‑Robert Grant (liberal) thinksthat the 2nd cent Gnostics (antinomian, anti‑Jewish) may have come fromthe 1st cent Essenes (legalistic, Jewish).
‑Grant sees that theGnostics were interested in Jewish traditions (Cain, serpent in the garden,etc.).
‑Grant suggests Esseneswere expecting their Messiah in the 70's and when he did not appear theyshifted views while retaining their scriptures (parallel to liberal Methodiststoday). Of course, this isadmittedly speculative.
‑Thus, Jude's citation of Enochcould mean:
1) Jude considered Enoch as Scripture [liberals,occult].
2) Jude felt this information was a validtradition which went back to Enoch.
3) Jude knew the book was respected by theheretics so he used it against them.
Of these, 3) seems most reasonable. Today, some Xns witness to Mormonsusing their own scriptures (citing orthodox elements in the Book of Mormon andcontrasting this with Smith's later writings). Some Xns also witness to Muslimsusing the Qur'an.
4.Occasion of Jude.
Verse 3 indicates Jude had been planningto write his hearers (otherwise unidentified) about "our commonsalvation."
The appearance of heretics in theirmidst (4) has changed his plans, so that now he appeals to them to"contend earnestly for the faith once delivered to the saints."
These heretics are described in detailin the letter, as:
having crept in unnoticed (4) (deceptive)
turning God's grace into licentiousness (4)(antinomian)
denying Jesus in some way (4) (lordship?Messiahship?)
dreaming (8) (claimed visions?)
defiling the flesh (8)
rejecting authority (8-10)
dangerous (12)
selfish (12)
don't deliver on their promises (12-13)
unstable (12)
spiritually dead (12)
grumblers (16)
lustful (16)
arrogant (16)
flatterers(16)
causing divisions (19)
worldly-minded/merely natural (19, cp 10b)
not having the Spirit (19)
5.Argument of Jude (a condensed explanatory paraphrase).
Falseteachers have slipped into the church. Their teaching needs to be exposed and refuted as an essential part ofdefending the faith, even though it takes time and effort away from morepositive things. (1-4a)
Theseteachers and their activities have not gone unnoticed by God, even though theyare currently prospering; He predicted their coming and judgment long ago. Just as the unbelieving Israelites werekilled in the wilderness, the fallen angels imprisoned to await judgment, andSodom was burnt up with fire, so it will happen to these too. (4b-9)
Theyare using dreams and visions to justify their sinful behavior and to rejectauthority, violating even their own "Scriptures." They don't understand what they rebelagainst, and are destroying themselves in the process. They are following the OT examples ofCain, Balaam and Korah in self-righteousness, envy, greed and rebellion.(10-11)
Butthey are a danger to you also, and their presence in your most sacredassemblies can wreck the ship of your faith. For they do not fear God, they care only for themselves,they don't deliver what they promise, they are unstable, spiritually dead,dredging up their own shame, reserved for the judgment of hell's darkness. Even their own books warn of theircoming judgment, as 1 Enoch does when its speaks of God's coming. And the description of ungodlinessthere fits them to a T. (12-16)
You,at least, ought to remember our Scriptures, how the apostles warned us thatsuch mockers would come in the last times. (17-19)
Sowe need to do what is necessary to build ourselves up in the holy faith. At the same time, we should reach outto rescue others from doubt, sin and judgment, not forgetting our ownvulnerability to these things. Praise God, He is the One who is able to keep us and sanctify us throughJesus Christ! (20-25)
6.Outline (by verses)
1‑2: Greeting.
3‑4: Arrival of apostates.
5‑7: Examples of divine judgment.
8‑16: Apostates characterized.
17‑19: Predicted by apostles.
20‑23: Keep yourselves, rescueothers.
24‑25: Benediction.
Acrostic (after Huddleston):
1‑4 Jude warns againstapostasy.
5‑7 Unbelief seen throughouthistory.
8‑19 Description of falseteachers.
20‑25 Exhortation to stayfaithful.
III.Johannine Literature: the Revelation.
A.Introduction to Revelation.
We turn now to the last book in the NT accordingto our traditional order, and the book that appears to have been written lastof all. This book has been giventhe most diverse interpretations of any of the NT books (even, any of the booksof the Bible), and has partly for that reason been less studied in many circlesthan most of the others.
1. Authorship.
a. Traditional view: The Apostle John.
‑This positionis supported by most of our ancient sources:
1) Justin Martyr (c150 AD)
And further, there was a certain man, evenwith us, whose name was John, one of the Apostles of Christ, who prophesied ina revelation which came to him that those who believed in our Christ will spenda thousand years in Jerusalem, and after that, the general and, in short, theeternal resurrection and judgment of all will come to pass at one and the sametime.
Dialogue with Trypho 81.4
‑The Dialogue was writtenaround 150 but it records a debate which apparently occurred in the late 130'sas it refers to the "recent" Bar Kochba War.
2) Eusebius, who is not infavor of apostolic authorship, writes about 3 men who refer to John'sRevelation. As he does not usethem to support his view, presumably they felt the Apostle wrote it. These 3 were:
‑Melito of Sardis (c170 AD);
‑Theophilus of Antioch (c180 AD);
‑Apollonius (c180 AD).
3) Muratorian Canon (c 170‑190AD)
... since the blessed Apostle Paul himself,imitating the example of his predecessor, John, wrote to seven churches only byname.... For John also, though hewrote in the Apocalypse to seven churches, nevertheless he speaks to themall.... We accept only theApocalypses of John and of Peter....
‑The reference to the Apocalypseof Peter is problematic, but may be a textual problem (see Guthrie) or perhapsa reference to 2 Peter.
4) Irenaeus (c170 AD)
John also, the Lord's disciple, whenbeholding the sacerdotal and glorious advent of His kingdom, says in theApocalypse: 'I turned to see thevoice that spake with me. Andbeing turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks....'
Against Heresies 4.20.11
Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord,who also had leaned upon his breast, did himself publish a Gospel during hisresidence at Ephesus in Asia.
Against Heresies 3.1.1
‑"Sacerdotal"presumably refers to the priestly garments Jesus is wearing in the vision.
‑Note in the 2nd quote thatIrenaeus calls John the apostle a disciple
=> 1st quote refers to the apostle also.
5) Hippolytus (c 170‑236 AD)
Isaiah, then, prophesies these things. But let us see if John uttered thingssimilar to his. For this man,being in the island of Patmos, saw a revelation of awe‑inspiringmysteries, which he relates unreservedly and teaches to others. Tell me, O blessed John, Apostle andpupil of the Lord, what have you seen and what have you heard about Babylon? Awake and speak, for she also banished you. 'And there came one of the sevenangels, who had the seven vials....=
Of Antichrist 25‑26
‑Note the Babylon = Romeconnection (ÒBabylon É also banished you.Ó)
‑See John called both"apostle and pupil [disciple]."
6) Origen (185‑250 AD)
What shall we say of him who reclined on thebreast of Jesus, I mean John? who has left one gospel, in which he confessesthat he could write so many that the whole world could not contain them. He also wrote the Apocalypse, commandedas he was, to conceal, and not to write the voices of the seven thunders.
Commentary on John 5; cited
in Eusebius' Ch History 6.25
‑Links Gospel writer withApocalypse.
‑Thus there is a large amount oftestimony from c130 AD on regarding the apostle John's authorship ofRevelation.
b.Opposition to the traditional view.
‑Revelation and Hebrews arethe only NT writings to have early opposition to them as being reallyScripture.
1) Usually opponentspropose that someone else named John wrote Revelation.
‑Eusebius: John the Elder
‑More recently: John Mark
‑Anchor Bible: Johnthe Baptist [actually his circle].
‑Dionysius: Cerinthus.
2) Proponents ofnon-apostolic authorship.
‑Somearose in moderately early times.
a) Dionysius of Alexandria (231‑264AD)
But it is highly probable that Cerinthus, thesame that established the heresy that bears his name, designedly affixed thename [of John] to his own forgery. For one of the doctrines that he taught was that Christ would have anearthly kingdom."
On Promises 2; cited in
Eusebius' Ch History 3.28
‑Dionysius wasimmediate successor to Origen at Alexandrian school.
‑Note hisreasoning: because of the mentionof an earthly kingdom, it must be from Cerinthus.
‑Appears to be anoverreaction in the early church to the Montanist heresy's teachings (2ndcent.) about the earthly kingdom (and their extravagance with it).
‑Ignores thepossibility that there might really be one, as Justin Martyr clearly thought.
b) Eusebius (c 270‑340AD)
For it is probable that the second, if it benot allowed that it was the first, saw the revelation ascribed to John."
Church History 3.39
‑This is his conclusionafter finding in Papias a comment which allows him to postulate the existenceof two Johns who taught Papias (see above, under authorship of JohannineEpistles, page 19).
‑Eusebius ranked Scripturein 3 categories with respect to canonicity:
1) accepted by all;
2) disputed;
3) spurious but orthodox.
Strangely, he putsRevelation in either (1) or (3).
‑A few of the fathers wereantagonistic to the book of Revelation, but they could not deny that theirpredecessors had used it.
3) Arguments against theApostle John.
a) Its style is not like John'sGospel and Epistles.
‑As Greek studentsknow, Revelation is among the easiest NT books to translate; but it has manypeculiar constructions (Hebraisms and apparent inventions) which do not show upin the Gospel/Epistles.
‑See invention of past & futureparticiples of "to be."
‑See a use of •¹ë with the nominative(app to express the unchangeableness of God's attributes).
‑This feature implies something like oneof the following:
(1) A different author wrote Revelation. (non-apostolic)
(2) Rev. was written early inJohn's career (during Neronian persecution, 64‑68 AD) before he had asolid mastery of Greek. (early date)
(3) John had the help of anamanuensis (secretary) in writing the Gospels and Epistles since he was in acultural center (Ephesus).
‑Rev.finds him alone on Patmos, and he apparently wrote it while the revelation wasgoing on (cf. command not to write down what the 7 thunders said; Rev. 10:4).
(4) The vision may have been inAramaic and John translated it into very literal Greek to preserve the contentas accurately as possible.
-Thus the style does not rule out authorship by John.
-We should note in passing thatthe book claims to be mainly by Jesus, and that John himself is not much morethan a scribe.
b) Papias'statement implies there were 2 Johns.
c) In Ephesusthere are two traditional tombs of "John."
4) Responses to the abovearguments:
a) There is notraditionagainst apostolic authorship.
‑Dionysius' remark is an inference from Rev.; Eusebius' is aninference from Papias.
‑If either of these had hadmore solid information, they would have cited it to support their speculations.
b) Papias'statement regarding the 2 Johns can be understood differently.
‑Thereis no clear tradition of an "elder John" distinct from the apostleJohn.
‑Evenif the Elder John existed, there is no link connecting him with Revelation.
‑While John was a fairly commonname, that a second John was important enough to have also taught Papias isdoubtful.
‑We have no evidence at all forJohn Mark or John the Baptist being author; there is enough anti‑gnosticmaterial in Rev. to rule out Cerinthus.
c) The "2tombs" is probably an artifact of tourism.
d) Positiveevidence:
‑Clear tradition that the Apostle wrote the Gospel.
‑Author calls himself John.
‑Very similar stylesbetween Gospel and Epistles, where John calls himself "elder" in 2‑3John.
‑The author of Rev. uses the term "logos" to refer toJesus.
‑Gospel of John isthe only other writing using that term.
e) Stylisticdifferences should not be overemphasized.
‑See explanations (2)‑(4) in section 3) a) above, page 70.
2.Date of Revelation.
a. Internal evidence.
1) Author is on Patmos, apparentlyexiled (1:9, 10:4).
‑Does not explicitly say heis exiled, but strongly hints in that direction.
‑Reference to writingduring the vision (10:4,7) implies it was written at that time.
‑But when was thisexile? Some put it in Nero=s reign, some inDomitian=s.
2) Some try to use 13:18("666") and 17:10,11 (7 kings) to identify the Roman emperor reigningat the time of writing.
‑They are not verysuccessful.
‑Can force "666"to refer to Nero (using Hebrew and variant spelling), but many names will fit.
‑By starting the "7kings" with Julius Caesar, one can get Nero also, but Julius was never aking.
‑Newman suggests the"7 kings" refer to 7 empires like the 4-empire lists in Dan. 2 and 7,but this one starts earlier (with the Assyrians and Egyptians).
‑Problem: Does the "is" in 17:10 referto the time of John or the time to which he is transported in the vision?
b.External evidence.
‑Not as unanimous for date as forauthorship, but still pretty strong.
1) The end of Domitian's reign (95‑96AD).
a) Irenaeus in Against Heresies 5.30.3.
‑Is early, studiedunder one of John's students and talked with another.
‑There was apersecution going on in 95‑96 AD.
b) Eusebius' chronology dates it in the15th year of Domitian (95‑96 AD).
c) Jerome accepts the same date.
2) Other dates
‑Several of thewitnesses date it other than Domitian's reign.
a) Epiphanius (c403 AD, contemporary ofJerome).
‑Dates it during Claudius'reign (c50 AD), but then says John was 90 years old! [Could John at age 70 have outrun Peter to the tomb?!]
‑Probably a slip on theemperor's name; age would fit Domitian=s reign.
b) Theophylact (11th cen).
‑Says it was written 32years after the ascension.
‑This would put it duringNero's reign (62‑64) but prob before the start of the persecution (fall64).
c) 6th cent. Syriac translation.
‑Introductiondates it in the exile under Nero.
d) Dorotheus (6th cen), Life andDeath of the Prophets
‑Dates it underTrajan (98‑117 AD).
c.Dating summary.
‑The best and earliest traditiondates the writing at around 95 AD under Domitian.
‑As Laodicea was destroyed by anearthquake in 60 or 64 AD (ancient sources disagree), the city would not be"rich and prosperous, in need of nothing" in Neronian times, as theywould be rebuilding the city then and would not have recovered yet.
‑The picture of the Asianchurches (Rev. 2‑3) is more consistent with Paul being gone for sometime.
B.Interpretation of Revelation.
1.Schools of Interpretation.
Because Rev. is loaded with figures, it has beengiven a wide variety of interpretations; these can be broadly classified intofour approaches. Note that none ofthese are distinctively pre‑, a‑ or post‑millennial, thoughthe first 3 relate to the time of fulfillment.
a. Preterite Interpretation (termderived from name of past tense in Latin).
1) Proponents.
‑First advocated byAlcasar, a Jesuit, c1614, to counter the view that the Babylon harlot was theCatholic Church and the beast was the Pope.
‑Other proponents: HugoGrotius, Moses Stuart, recently Jay Adams.
2) Features.
‑Sees most of the bookfulfilled early in church history, either about 70 AD or around 400 AD.
‑According to Alcasar,Grotius, Adams:
Ch.1: Introduction.
Ch.2‑3: Are realchurches.
Ch.5‑11: Symbolically predictthe victory of Christianity over Judaism (fulfilled near
the end of the 1st century).
Ch.12‑19: Symbolically predict the victory of Christianity over paganism(fulfilled near
the end of the 4th century).
Only the 2nd Coming, Last Judgment, and the eternal state have yet to befulfilled. Extreme preterists believe allhas been fulfilled (spiritually).
b. Historical Interpretation.
1) Proponents.
‑First advocated byBerengaud, c11th cent.
‑Held by Wyclif, Luther,many A‑mills, Alford (pre‑mill).
2) Features.
‑See fulfillments scatteredthroughout church history, including the Middle Ages and modern times.
‑Predictions are notnecessarily in chronological order.
‑Interpretations usuallymust be revised every couple centuries as new events happen which have to befit into the picture.
c. Futuristic Interpretation.
1) Proponents.
‑Apparently held by theearly church fathers although it is hard to distinguish between these viewswhen very little church history had yet occurred. Generally they saw the events in Rev. as still to come.
‑Ribera, a Jesuit, c1580,revived this model to take the heat off the Pope.
‑Is held by most modern pre‑mills.
2) Features.
‑See most fulfillment (ch.4 on?) as still future, just before the Lord's return.
‑Pre‑mill dispensationalistsoften see ch. 1‑3 as historical and ch. 4 on as futuristic.
‑Newman sees ch. 1‑3as relating to contemporary events of John's time, opening of seals as spanning most of ch history, eventsfrom seal 6 and onward as still future.
d. Idealistic (Topical) Interpretation.
1) Proponents.
‑Held by Auberlen (19thcen), Milligan, perhaps Lenski.
2) Features.
‑Does not link mostof the prophecies to specific events in the past, present or future.
‑Sees features aspicturing general teachings on the struggle between good and evil, usingillustrative imagery.
2.Some Principles of Interpretation.
a. Revelation is Scripture.
1) So it is inspired, inerrant.
Don't interpret in such a way that itspredictions are falsfied.
‑e.g., Liberalstake "soon" to imply a 1st century 2nd Coming which did not occur(thus Christianity is wrong).
‑"Soon"can also be translated as "quickly" or "suddenly.""Suddenly" fits better with the thief at night idea and Peter'sremark that 1000 years <=> 1 day.
‑Also, it iscommon for Scripture to speak to the audience as if they will see thefulfillment of the prediction, even if it is intended for the far future (cpJacob's predictions about his sons inGen. 49, which actually apply to thetribes many years later).
2) It is intended to be understood.
Don't interpret in too arcane a manner.
Interpretations shouldmake some reasonable sense to original audience. [This can be over-driven so that Bible cannot predict!]
‑Revelation makesus think through eschatological material and assimilate it with many OTpassages.
‑In studying it,we must be sure to be (and remain) more familiar with the text than the variousviews about it, as this is the only way to judge between views.
b. Revelation is a revelation.
1) commentators tend toget sidetracked into what John as author is allegedly doing, when he tells usthat most of what he says is describing actual visions he saw.
2) according to Rev 1:1,the author is God, the revealer is Jesus Christ, the messenger is an angel, therecipient is John. This mayexplain some of the stylistic differences between Rev and the Gospel of John,and 1-3 John.
c. Revelation makes considerable use offigure.
1) e.g., Jesus as lamb(5:6), as priest with sword coming from mouth (1:16). etc.
2) much of thisfigurative material comes from the OT, which is used or adapted by Jesus (notJohn!) in Revelation; e.g., lampstands (2:2), two witnesses as olive trees(11:4), trumpets (8:6), etc.
3) some of this appearsto come from contemporary Greco-Roman culture; e.g., seven seals (5:1), whitestone (2:17), etc.
4) possibly, some of thefigures were chosen to pick up ideas that were previously circulating in pagancircles (note how Jesus, in John 12:24, does something of this sort in responseto the Greeks coming to see him).
d. It appears that more than one of theschemes in #1, above, is useful in understanding Revelation.
1) the figures may havebeen chosen to resonate with the experience of Xns throughout the church age.
2) many interpreters whodo not hold to the Historical View (1b, above) still think some sections ofRevelation span church history (e.g., 7 churches, or 7 seals, or dragon, woman& child).
‑Most commentatorsfeel the 3 series of 7 seals, trumpets, and bowls overlap (at least somewhat)rather than being one continuoussequence.
3. Outline. (adaptedfrom George E. Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John)
1. Prologue (1:1‑8)
2. The First Vision (1:9‑3:22): ThePresent
a. Vision of Glorified Christ (1:9‑20)
b. His Seven Letters (2:1‑3:22)
3. The Second Vision (4:1‑16:21): TheFuture
a. The Heavenly Throne‑Room (4:1‑11)
b. The Seven Seals (5:1‑8:1)
(1) The Scroll & the Lamb (5:1‑14)
(2) Six Seals Opened (6:1‑17)
(3) The Seal Interlude: Two Multitudes (7:1‑17)
(a) The 144,000 (7:1‑8)
(b) The Innumerable Multitude (7:9‑17)
(4) The Seventh Seal (8:1)
c. The Seven Trumpets (8:2‑11:20)
(1) Trumpets Prepared (8:2‑6)
(2) Six Trumpets Sounded (8:7‑9:21)
(3) The Trumpet Interlude: Two Witnesses (10:1‑11:13)
(a) The Angel with the Scroll (10:1‑11)
(b) The Temple & the Two Witnesses (11:1‑14)
(4) The Seventh Trumpet (11:15‑20)
d. The Second Vision Interlude: Beauty &Beast (12:1‑14:20)
(1) The Dragon, the Woman & Her Seed (12:1‑17)
(2) The Two Beasts (13:1‑18)
(3) The 144,000, the 3 Angels & the 2Harvests (14:1‑20)
e. The Seven Bowls (15:1‑16:21)
(1) Bowls Prepared (15:1‑8)
(2) Seven Bowls Poured Out (16:1‑21)
4. The Third Vision (17:1‑21:8): TheEnd
a. Babylon Destroyed (17:1‑19:5)
(1) The Woman on the Beast (17:1‑18)
(2) The Judgment of Babylon (18:1‑19:5)
b. Final Victory (19:6‑21:8)
(1) The Marriage of the Lamb (19:6‑10)
(2) Christ's Second Coming (19:11‑21)
(3) The Millennial Rule (20:1‑10)
(4) The Last Judgment (20:11‑15)
(5) New Heavens & New Earth (21:1‑8)
5. The Fourth Vision (21:9‑22:5): TheBeginning
a. The New Jerusalem (21:9‑27)
b. The River of Life (22:1‑5)
6. Epilogue (22:6‑21)
C.Apocalyptic Genre
1. Definitions (adapted fromRichard N. Soulen, Handbook of Biblical Criticism 2nd ed. [Knox, 1981],19ff, 148ff)
a. Apocalyptic - those ancientvisionary writings (or parts) which purport to reveal the mystery of the end ofthe world/age and of the glories of the world/age to come.
b. Prophecy - an utterance, oral orwritten, of a prophet, one who claims to speak for God. Since often pertained to the future,comes to be identified with foretelling future events. Usually distinguished from narrative,law, psalms, wisdom; but not strictly a category of form, but rather of claimedsource.
So apocalyptic is a subclass of predictiveprophecy which is claimed to be distinctive re/ form and subject matter.
2. Some Characteristics of ApocalypticLiterature
(few would contain all these features)
a. Revelation of visionary sort
b. Extensive use of symbolism
c. Tendency to pessimism re/ human nature
d. Cosmic perspective
e. World‑shaking events
f. Triumph of God
g. Deterministic: events are set
h. Dualistic: struggle of good, evil
i. Pseudonymous: claim famous ancient author \ liberals apply these to manybiblical
j. History rewritten as prophecy / apocalypses, conservatives donÕt
3. Biblical Material Usually ConsideredApocalyptic
a. Numbers 23‑24 - Balaam's oracles re/future of Israel, Amelek, etc.
b. Isaiah 24‑27 -Events of end of age
c. Ezekiel - Chariot w/cherubim, departure of glory, visionary temple, invasion of Israel; parabolicvisions
d. Daniel - parabolicvisions & dreams re/ future & end of age
e. Zechariah - parabolicvisions; events of end
f. Olivet Discourse (Mt24‑25; Mk 13; Lk 21) - Christ reveals signs of end, 2nd coming todisciples
g. 1 Thessalonians 4‑5- 2nd coming, resurrection, end of age
h. 2 Thessalonians 1‑2- 2nd coming; man of lawlessness
i. Revelation - visionsof heaven, end of age; symbolism
4. Extrabiblical Apocalypses
a. 1‑3 Enoch
1 Enoch (Jewish, oldestparts c200 BC) visionary journeys of Enoch thru world & underworld;emphasis on angels, Messiah; vision of world history (to end of age) in symbols
2 Enoch (medieval Xn,dep on Jewish material 1st AD) visionary journey of Enoch thru heavens;revelation of creation & world history down to flood
3 Enoch (Jewish, 5th‑6thcens AD) visionary journey of R. Ishmael to heaven, learning secrets fromMetatron/Enoch incl cosomolgy, eschatology
b. 2‑3 Baruch
2 Baruch (Jewish, 2ndAD) preview of world history to Messiah via symbolic visions
3 Baruch (Jewish &Xn, 1st‑2nd AD) B's complaint re/ destruction of Jerus leads to visit todifferent heavens
c. War of Sons of Lightvs Sons of Darkness (1QM) rules for conducting end‑time war againstGentiles
d. Assumption of Moses(Jewish, 1st AD) Moses, before departure, reveals to Joshua history of Israelfrom conquest to dawn of golden age
e. Martyrdom &Ascension of Isaiah (Jew & Xn, 2nd BC‑4th AD) Isaiah visits heaven invision, sees events to end of world; Isa sawn in two by Manasseh
f. 4 Ezra (Jewish, cAD100, w/ Xn additions later) seven visions answering Ezra's Qs re/ destructionof Jerus, # of saved, gives world history to Messiah
g. Shepherd of Hermas(2nd AD) visions of Hermas re/ woman and shepherd who give allegoricalinstructions on Xn life, esp repentance
h. Apocalypse of Peter(2nd AD) X on Mt. of Olives describes heaven & hell to Peter, with specialemphasis on various punishments of sinners
i. Apocalypse of Paul(4th‑5th AD) Paul carried up to 3rd heaven, sees how things work, meetsangels, patriarchs, etc.; details on blessing of righteous, punishment ofwicked
j. Apocalypse of Thomas(no later than 5th AD) X reveals to Thos events leading up to end in a 7 dayscheme
5.Summary on Apocalyptic Genre
Diverse materials here
Origin of genre isearlier than intertestament period; also continues later than IT period
Not restricted tocanonical materials, but not clear that canonical material borrowed from non‑canonical(exception: Jude app uses 1 Enoch, poss Assumption Moses)
Rather, dependence seemsto go other way: Enoch, etc., dependent on Ezekiel, Daniel;
Hermas, Apoc Peter, etc. dependent on Revelation.
Does not mean canonicalapocalyptic cannot use symbolism, imagery existing in culture of time, but willneed to test this (I think there is some Greco-Roman symbolism in Revelation:seven-sealed book, white stone, etc.)
No real evidence of pseudonymity in canonicalapocalyptic
What does this cash out to for interpretation?
B end of age, end of Ahistory@
B final judgment
B fate of wicked
B eternal state
B New Jerusalem
Seethese as real events to come in human history.
IV.The Canon of the New Testament.
A.The Canon Controversy.
1.The Term "Canon."
a. Etymology.
The term "canon" in English is derivedfrom the Greek καvώv, the early meaning of which was "measuringrod," something like a ruler with marks on it used for measuring lengthand drawing straight lines. Theterm came to be used metaphorically for "standard", a norm forcomparison. Also usedmetaphorically for a "list", probably from the series of marks on therod.
b. Technical/theological uses of"canon".
1) Scriptures functioningas our norm or standard, i.e., as our ultimate rule of faith.
2) The list of booksbelonging to the Scripture.
3) A list of rules ordecisions made by a church council (combines "list" and"standard").
Our interest here is use b. 2): What books properly belong in theBible?
2.Divergent views on the Extent of the canon.
An important reason for studying this subject isthe disagreement which exists in the world and even the professing churchof the extent of the canon.
a. Traditional Protestant View.
The 66 books (the number is not strict, buttheir content is):
OT = 39, matching the traditional Jewish view.
NT = 27, matching the traditional Christianview.
b. Larger canons.
1) Roman Catholic andGreek Orthodox add the Apocrypha as a part of the OT. (They agree with Protestants on theextent of the NT canon.)
The Apocrypha is some 8 additional books (plusadditions to some other books): 1-2 Maccabees, Judith, Tobit, Prayer ofManasseh, 3[-4] Ezra, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom of Solomon; plus additions toDaniel (Song of the 3 Holy Children, Susanna, Bel & Dragon),Esther (don't have separate titles), Jeremiah (Letter of Jeremiah, Baruch).
2) Mormons accept the Protestant Bible, and add:
Book of Mormon. \ called
Doctrine and Covenants. | "Triple Combination"
Pearl of GreatPrice. / when bound in 1volume
c. Smaller canons.
1) Marcion (c150 AD)
Felt that the God of the OT really existed, butwas different (inferior) being than the God of the NT. Accepted one gospel (Luke) in analtered form, plus 10 epistles of Paul, also altered. We do not have any copies of Marcion's text.
2) Swedenborgians (Church of the New Jerusalem).
Follow Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772).
NT: accept only the 4Gospels and Revelation (sort of mirror image of Marcion's canon). No epistles accepted.
Only 29 books acceptedin the OT: not Ruth, 1-2 Chron, Ezr, Neh, Est, Job, Prov, Eccl, SS
3) Theological liberalism.
There is a range of views among liberals. Some say nothing is God's revelation,as there is no real revelation (so no canon). Others find a "canon" within the canon: would saythat some parts of the Bible are from God. Both groups would recognize an "ecclesiastical"canon (books traditionally recognized by the church). Often do not mind including the Apocrypha as they do notthink the true canon is inerrant or more inspired.
3.Divergent Views on the Basis of Canonicity.
Not only is there disagreement on what books (ifany) belong in the canon, there is disagreement on what constitutes canonicity.
a. Recognition by a church council (very commonview).
Liberals argue that the church decided whichbooks should be in the Bible (and tend to deny or minimize inspiration).
RCs and GO also say that the church chose theBible. Argue that the churchexisted first, thus the church has the greater authority. Say that God worked through the churchto make the canon. They tend tosupport inspiration (but the church is also inspired).
There are serious problems with this view (seebelow). But it should be admittedthat the action of a council is typically the means by which a particularinstitutional church formalizes its submission to the Bible.
b. Other views attemptto define how the canon came about without dependence on councils.
History shows that councils came at the endrather than at the beginning of canonization discussions (cf. Nicea, Jamnia),therefore one must ask, how did something of a consensus arise before thecouncils met?
Liberals and rationalists deny inspiration, sothey must find another mechanism for this origin of the canon which isindependent of God and revelation.
1) The "old books" were accepted ascanonical.
People had reverence for, and ascribed authorityto, ancient writings.
Problem: The Bible mentions other old bookswhich are not in Scripture. E.g., Jasher, Book of the Wars of theLORD already existed when the canonical book which refers to it was beingwritten. Liberals will typically claim these had been lost before canonicaldecisions made.
Problem: Age was not a necessary criterion. New books were recognized asauthoritative immediately. E.g., the book of the Covenant which was placed beside the ark. Liberals who hold this theory must denythe historicity of such passages.
2) Books of GreatReligious Value were recognized as Canonical.
Obviously they must have been thought to havehad religious value, but this is not a sufficient condition. Christians (and Jews) have always feltthat many non-canonical books were of great religious value, yet thesewere not included.
Biblical view: Authority is what counts, not "value".
3) New Books whichagreed with Previous Revelation were taken in.
This is a necessary condition and a good test,but not a sufficient reason. Doesnot explain origin of the initial books either.
c. The Necessary andSufficient Condition (Basis) for Canonicity is Inspiration.
The Bible claims this. "Canonical" is (or ought to be) parallel to"inspiration." That is,non‑canonical books are not inspired and canonical books are.
Exception: God may have inspired some writingswhich are not preserved (e.g., Paul's other letters to Corinth).
Basic Idea: God is the origin of the Bible.
But: when we move from the causal (what makes somethingcanonical?) to the epistemological (how do we determine what is canonical?) wehave to look to testable criteria.
Metaphysical question: What makes a bookcanonical? Answer: God's inspiration.
Epistemological question: How do we recognize aninspired book when we see one?
B.The Recognition of Canonicity.
1.The Importance of the Time‑Perspective.
a. Loss of information with the passage of time.
The further removed we are from an incident, theless information (typically) we have about it. We say "typically" because: lost information maybe recovered; the level of information we have may stagnate at some minimumlevel.
Example: Activities of Alexander the Great. Eyewitnesses write and tellincidents about him. The nextgeneration remembers some stories. Several generations later: no reliable oral stories have survived. Only the written material is ofvalue. If some written materialwas lost, perhaps it can be recovered, perhaps not. Also, some tight‑knit group may preserve oral traditions.
Thus we quickly lose information about an eventunless it was written down. Historical information levels off rather quickly (2 or 3 generations) toa very low percentage of what was initially known.
Therefore, determining the canonicity of a bookwhich was written 100's or 1000's of years ago is a big problem. Important information available to thegeneration in which the book was written has been lost.
b. An ImportantDistinction exists between recognition soon after writing and long afterwriting.
The tests are rather different. Initially, could ask the author ordirect recipients of the writing who wrote it, how they got it, etc.
Since the OT and NT are not "justwritten," we must see if the contemporary people applied reasonable principlesin their time to check for canonicity. How were the "just written" principles applied back when theOT and NT were themselves "just written"?
However, we can test modern claims directlyourselves.
Example: The Book of Mormon (c1830). We are getting near the time-limit, since no people are now alive fromthen. However, in upstate NY thereis still a courthouse where old papers were recently found in the basementwith record of court costs for the trial of Joseph Smith as a"glass-looker." Information agrees with that from other documents now lost which reportedthat J.S. was a "glass‑looker" [copy of earlier courttranscript in Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge].
For Jeanne Dixon, Wilkerson's Vision, Moon's DivinePrinciplewe can apply such tests as below.
2.Recognition of a Work Recently Written.
How do we recognize an inspired book recentlywritten? We could use arbitraryprinciples by inventing our own, but this is dangerous if they were not God'sprinciples! E.g, the Pharisees wanteda sign "from heaven". Jesus pointed out to them that in judging the weather, they looked carefullyat what signs were available. Wetoo should look at what signs are available, the signs which God gave, and notset up our own, which He might or might not meet.
God gave tests to His people because falseprophets were around. The peoplewere responsible to apply the tests.
The tests:
1) Connection withsupernatural phenomena, including revelation.
2) Connection withearlier inspired books or revelation. Important: the connection should bemade both ways, i.e., the successor should have been predicted. There should be specific indications ofwhat he will be like.
3) Agreement withearlier inspired books or revelation. That is, the new stuff (1) cannot contradict; but (2) can explain andclarify.
These tests were all used by the people of Godin OT and NT times. We will trace this below in 4 periods ofbiblical revelation:
Mosaic Prophetic Christ Apostles
Law Prophets Gospels Epistles
Old Covenant--------- NewCovenant ---------
Establishment Development Establishment Development
a. Connected withsupernatural phenomena, including revelation.
God chose to have revelation be attested bygreat supernatural power to limit the number of candidates. Fakes would at least have to give some"miraculous" signs.
1) Moses gives signs to Pharoah and Israel.
Rod/snake, leprous hand, various plagues. Eventually escalates beyond themagicians' powers. After crossingthe Red Sea and coming to Sinai, then we get the revelation which forms thebasis for the whole covenant. Thusthe covenant is well‑attested by miracles of Egypt and desert.
2) The Prophets.
Their messages are attested by miracles andshort-term prophecy.
Deut. 18 contrasts pagan forms of divinationwith God's means. Note thedifferent purpose: pagan divination arises from men seeking to get specificinformation, God's prophets reveal God's choice of information. Human agenda vs. God's.
Israelites were to put to death the prophet"if the prediction does not come to pass." No mistakes allowed!
If test properly applied, it tends to discourageattempts to set up a lucrative business. Note that Deut. 13 ("gives a sign or wonder")implies that the burden of proof is on the prophet.
Some examples of both short and long rangepredictions:
1 Kings 13:
Jeroboam becomes king of Israel (Ephraim) anddoes not want the people to go to Jerusalem to worship (weakens his kingdom),so he sets up altars and calves at Bethel and Dan.
Prophet comes w/ message: "Josiah will desecrate thealtar" (long-range) and "the altar will split in two"(short-range). Also withersJeroboam's arm (miracle & short-reange prophecy).
1 Kings 22:
Ahab and Jehoshaphat going up to Ramoth‑Gileadto fight Syrians. Micaiahcontradicts Ahab's prophets by predicting Israel will be scattered andAhab will die.
Zedekiah (false prophet) gets mad at him; statementprobably means "I know I am a prophet, what about you?" Michaiah's answer: "You will findout when you hide yourself... "If you return safely, the LORD has not spoken through me"
Thus supernatural events back up and often arerelated to prophetic messages. Bythis means, Israel was to test her prophets and not follow false ones.
Implies God's prophets will give good evidence.
3) Jesus.
Worked many miracles, gave many short‑termprophecies about His death, resurrection, fall of Jerusalem, etc.
4) Apostles.
See many references to supernatural powers inActs. Paul in 2 Cor. 12:12 "the signs of a true apostle were performedamong you." Hebrews 2:3‑4 "God bearing witness [to Hisapostles] by signs and wonders."
Summary: Evidence from these 4 periods show that inspired books are connectedwith supernatural signs.
This is not a sufficient condition because Godis not the only one who can do miracles (Deut. 13), or at least things wecannot distinguish from miracles.
But if there is no attestation given, then wehave no reason to believe the alleged spokesman has any divine word.
We are not able to test this for every Biblicalbook, as we were not there, and information is lost with time.
But we can apply this criterion to allegedprophets today and to some long range OT prophecies. We give some examples of latter in our book Evidence ofProphecy.
b. Connection with earlier inspired books orrevelation.
This tie should be in both directions, otherwiseanyone can claim to be a new prophet in your religion. The connection should especially beforward, that is, one should be expecting the arrival of some such person.
Consider the forward and backward connections ineach period:
Start-up: General revelation has been continuousfrom all generations and there appear to have been believers in allgenerations. Probably also specialrevelation, at least in form of tradition from patriarchs. So Abraham has to decide if he isgetting direct revelation. Note that he is an individual, not a group.
1) Moses.
Is sent by the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
His way was prepared by revelation in Gen 15:13fwhere God tells Abraham about 400 years of oppression to come in foreignland, after which his descendants will be delivered by God with manypossessions. This makesthe connection forward.
Moses says the God of Abr, Is and Jac has senthim to deliver them from slavery, so he makes the connection backward.
Perhaps this prediction faked later? This is not a test we can apply toMoses, due to the time-perspective we have been talking about. We are here only trying to show thebiblical standards.
The Israelite slaves in Egypt knew if theirfamily tradition contained such a prediction.
Moses then makes provision for the prophets whowill come. People know what toexpect and how to test them when they begin to show up, since the tests in Deut18 and 13 had been provided.
2) The Prophets.
Using Moses' criteria, Israel within the generationof the prophet could tell if he was a true prophet: i.e., Jeremiah vs. Hananiah(Jer 28; w/in 2 yrs H. died). Thisprovides the basis for the books which we have.
Within a generation it was clear who was a falseand who true prophet. Trueprophet's works were preserved.
The true prophets also made a major connectionback to Moses' law in their teaching, vs. some false prophets who led theminto Baal worship or encouraged setting up golden calves again.
The key thing here is the advance predictionabout the prophets.
The prophets tell about a deliverer to come, theMessiah. This is the nextforward connection. The Jews did not know how to fit all these prophecies together,but they did know he was coming.
3) Jesus.
Jesus makes many back references. Note Matthewand Hebrews for forward connections via fulfilled prophecy (includingtypology). This was a major apologeticof the early church, that Jesus fulfilled the messianic prophecies.
4) Apostles.
The apostles have an immediate connection withJesus, which was public knowledge. The people recognized them as having been with Him (see Acts 4 beforethe Sanhedrin).
Jesus predicts their functions: John 14:26 => commissionfor teaching and organizing the church. John 15:27 => powerto make and cancel regulations with respect to church practice (cf. 'bindingand loosing' in rabbinical usage).
The Apostles look forward to: primarily thesecond coming of Christ; secondarily, the 2 witnesses who are specificallydescribed in Rev 11.
5) Situation Today: It is very difficult to establisha claim to be one of the 2 witnesses. Need to do what they are described as doing: working miracles,including fire from heaven on opponents.
Thus Moon, Swedenborg and other false prophetsmore often claim to be the second coming of Christ. Swedenborg says his teaching is the secondcoming. Moon says that Christ failedthe first time and he is now doing Christ's job (having divine children).
But the Bible says that you will not need to betold when Christ returns, it will be obvious (lightning and vulture analogiesin Matt 24).
Bible indicates that the eschaton is next. Any new guy on the scene must be one ofthe following:
a) A false prophet or false messiah.
b) The Antichrist or his False Prophet.
c) One of the two witnesses.
d) Christ (in His second coming).
The Mormons have tried to get around this limitationon the future by interpreting Ezekiel's prophecy of the two sticks as referringto their revelation, where the Bible and the Book of Mormon are the twosticks. This view ignores the interpretation which follows immediately,that the sticks are the two kingdoms. This does show that J. Smith was aware of the need for forwardattestation.
Only Reorganized Mormons accept J.Smith's amplifiedBible with its prophecy at end of Genesis about "another Joseph".
Unfortunately some Charismatics really muddy thewater here by saying that (charismatic) error in prediction shows that"your gifts are not perfected yet". This departs from the Biblicalstandard.
c. Agreement with earlier inspired books orrevelation.
1) Cannot contradict.
This is derived from Deut. 13:1‑3. Not every time that a false prophetprophesies will he be wrong. Evennormal people can guess the future occasionally, and this one mayhave demonic help. Thus we mustalso test the message.
He should not teach something which contradictsthose things which were previously proven to be canonical.
Note that this test shoots down Mormonism, asthey say there are many other gods. Also liberalism and other heresies which have a different god than theone pictured in the Bible.
Also note that this is also a test of our faith (Deut.13:3). God is sending a test to see if we loveHim or if we only follow the religion which seems most glamorous, excitingat the time.
Acts 17:11 shows the responsibility of thepeople to test teaching against Scripture. Should always be doing this with our teachers, but especiallywith those who claim "My connection with God overcomes my failures,so I am infallible and you have no right to test me."
This test implies that we have the 'right' todemand evidence (signs) from a new prophet.
What about Jesus refusing signs toPharisees? Jesus had already beengiving sufficient evidence.
Paul says (Gal 1:8‑9) that even if anothergospel comes from an angel, do notaccept it.
Isolation mentality among Christians today isnot good (i.e., shield your people from heresy, rather than teach them sothat they will be strong enough to handle it).
2) Can explain and clarify.
We should not press the above principle to thepoint where a prophet can never add new revelation. We may (correctly) think God has completedBible, but how would this have worked for the Pharisees? And how help persons not convinced byour "day of revelation over" exegesis?
Otherwise why would God send more prophets afterMoses?
Revelation probably stopped with the apostlesbecause they explained all that was necessary.
Jesus clarifies who the Father is (John 1:17‑18),and how can we go beyond that? Thetheme of the gospel is to reveal the Father. Also see this in 1 Peter 1:10‑12, where Peter commentsthat the OT prophets did not always understand what they were writing. The NT clarifies their writings.
We must also leave room for the two witnesses.
Note: All three of the above criteria [a), b),c)] are needed to have an air‑tight test. Remember that these tests canoften only be effectively applied to works recently written.
3.Recognition for a Work Written Long Ago.
The biblical prophets and apostles presentedthemselves to the people of God of their times as having really come from Godwith important messages that we ignore only at our peril. We cannot properly do or redo what wasdone at that time. We do find inthe Christian materials evidence of supernatural activity inScripture: fulfilled prophecy, miracles, changed lives.
Instead we suggest the following as a check thatthe Bible really is what it claims to be:
a. Christian evidencespoint to Christ and salvation through Him.
This is the first step. Acceptance of Scripture's historicaltrustworthiness via supernatural evidence leads to accepting Christ. We do not base our beliefs re/inerrancy or limits of canon on this level of understanding.
b. Christ as Lordexplicitly endorses the OT and implicitly the NT.
Christ explicitly endorses the block of materialcalled "Scripture" by the Jews (see J. Wenham, Christ and theScriptures).
He implicitly endorses the NT by:
1) Selecting apostlesand looking forward to their ministry.
2) Approving theprovidential process that led to the canonization of the OT, and which wouldalso lead to canonization of the NT.
c. Canonicity then reduces to historicalquestions:
We must depend on the people then living toapply for us the tests for an inspired book recently written.
We can then ask these two questions:
1) What writings hadPalestinian Jews come to recognize by the time of Christ as Scripture?
Answer: Orthodox Jewish [= Protestant] Old Testament(this covered in OT Introduction course).
2) What Christianwritings did Christians come to recognize in the few centuries afterChrist, when substantial information was still available?
Answer: Orthodox Christian NT (same for Prot,RCs, GO).
We cover question 2) here below.
C.Historical Information Recognizing the N.T.
Muchof this material comes from Geisler & Nix, General Intro to the Bible
1.Stimuli to Recognition.
There were several driving forces which requiredthe early church to think through the canon question. Some of these were active even in the days of theapostles. All were at work longbefore the canon decisions of the councils (after 325 AD).
a. The Need for Revelation.
The church has enough problems today, but wouldbe in much worse shape without revelation as a standard and authority. Already see this need in AD 60's, latein the Apostles' lives.
1 Timothy 3:14‑15 ‑> You need to know somethings so I am writing you now in case I never get to talk to you again.
Interesting for charismatics that Timothy needsto be told these things rather then receiving them by direct revelation. And he did have spiritual gifts!
The details in context relate to church function. Also applies to knowledge aboutChrist's ministry and the content of the gospel.
See a parallel idea in 2Peter 1 where he writes in order to "bring to remembrance".
In 1 John we find thephrase "I am writing these things for ... [some good reason]" over 20times.
1 Timothy 4:13 ‑>"Give attention to reading" (see also Revelation 1:3).
2 Timothy 3:16‑17 ‑>Good passage on the value of Scripture. Note the areas of value:
teaching ‑ theoretical;
training ‑ practical;
correction and restoration ‑ churchfunction.
b. The Problem of Persecution.
This starts with Jewish persecution in Jerusalemsoon after Pentecost. LocalGentile persecution occurs off and on during the apostolic period. Official persecution by the RomanEmpire begins in 64 AD with Nero and the fire in Rome.
Persecution raises the question: "Whatbooks should I protect with my life because they are God's word, and which onesare merely human productions and so not worth it?"
c. The Priorities of Translation.
Soon after Christianity begins to spread theneed for translation arises (there may have been some initial need to translateinto or out of Hebrew).
By the 2nd century there is a need for Latinversions in the West.
Raises the question: "What should have thehighest priority among the Christian literature?"
The answer has always been Scripture. Not even good books like"Pilgrim's Progess" are translated before the Bible.
Obviously there are priorities within thebiblical books on which to translate first.
d. The Threat of Heresy.
This was a problem from early times. Note the problems with Judiazers inActs and Pauline epistles, with antinomians in Paul and James.
See reference to an apparent attempt to forge aPauline letter to the Thessalonians in the 50's AD. The hint in 2 Thess 2:2 is the earliest known.
The "Gospel of Thomas" (gnostic) is probablythe earliest extant fake gospel. Of interest that it claims to be by Thomas but that it had been keptsecret, implying some sort of canon existed at that time.
2. NT Evidence ofPreparation and Recognition of Inspired Writings.
The NT provides our earliest evidence that theconcept of "Scripture" was understood to apply to Xn writings (notjust the OT), and that the preparation and recognition of such was alreadyunderway in the apostolic period.
a. Selection of materials for inclusion.
The NT shows an awareness that writing was goingon. We see that the Apostlesthemselves are involved in the selection process.
The Apostles made the decisions about whatelements of the ministry of Christ were important to preserve.
John 20:30 "Many other signs which are notwritten", but enough is given so that we can recognize who Jesus isand trust in Him.
John 21:25 "Many other things which Jesusdid..." Can't writedown everything he did.
Luke 1:1‑4 See evidence of careful investigation,selection, and concern for accuracy.
b. Protection from Error.
Luke did a careful investigation as there wereapparently amateurs who had not.
John claims to be an eyewitness, and corrects (toits original ambiguity) a popular interpretive error in what Jesus said (John21) about John "not dying."
2 Timothy 1:13‑14 Paul is concerned that people guard thetreasure entrusted to them.
2 Timothy 2:2 "The things which you heard fromme in the presence of many witnesses..." Paul did not just make up this stuff, these witnesses backedup Paul's message. Implies therewere still many witnesses alive.
2 Timothy 2:14 "Remind them of these things anddo not wrangle about words." Concerned to protect the message from word games.
2 Timothy 3:16‑17 Says that Scripture is from God, andimplies that we should study it.
2 Thess. 2:2 apparentlyrefers to an early attempt to forge a letter from Paul. "Spirit" is someone standingup and speaking, and claiming to be a prophet. "Message" is someone who has arrived and claims tohave talked to Paul. "Letteras if from us" is obvious. This verse is very general about the actual situation: one (or more) ofthe three?
2 Thess. 2:15 seems tonarrow it down to either a message or letter.
2 Thess. 3:17 stronglyimplies that it was a forged letter, and Paul makes it clear in thispassage that he ÒsignsÓ each of his letters.
All this at least shows an awareness of andsafeguarding against the problem. People who knew his handwriting and who had the autograph could usethis test. We cannot. (the distinctionbetween work recently written, etc.)
There are private letters on papyrus from Egyptwhich are "autographs," as only one copy was made. Many of these have a nice professionalpenmanship for the body of the letter (the paid scribe), but the greetings atthe end are in amateurish script (the real sender).
This is similar to our use of signatures ontyped business letters today.
c. Public reading in the churches.
See public reading commanded in several places:1 Thess 5:27, Col 4:16, Rev 1:3. This in an important criterion as a test, because when the churchesgot together across the Empire after the persecution ended, this was one oftheir main questions: Do we knowthis book was read in the "old" churches?
d. Circulation among the churches.
Copies of NT writings were also circulated fromchurch to church, rather than the recipient church keeping their letters, etc.a secret. Rev 1:3 shows the apocalypsewas sent to 7 churches. InCol.4:16, Paul commands Colossians to be read in Laodicea & vice versa(Laodicean letter probably = Ephesians or Philemon).
Even before this, we see this done in Acts withthe decision letter from the Jerusalem Council (c50 AD). In Acts 16:4, see that Paul circulatesit in the regions of Galatia, to churches beyond those to which it wasoringinally addressed.
Thus the theory that Paul's letters were localand forgotten after his death to be revived 30 years later and then popularized(view of E.J. Goodspeed) is not true. They were circulated widely from the beginning.
e. Collection.
The NT was not bound into one volume initially,as papyrus was not strong enough to work well as the paper for thickbooks. The biggest papyrus codexthat survives (p45) contains the Gospels and Acts, and itapparently has no close surviving competitors for size. Usually one volume would containPaul's Epistles; another 1 or 2 Gospels; another Acts (or Acts & GeneralEps); another Revelation, so that the whole NT would take up severalvolumes. With use of parchment westart getting the whole Bible in one volume. But doubtless this was rare even then, due to cost of such alarge book.
Some early evidence of collection:
2 Peter 3:15‑16 "The things which Paul wrote toyou". Peter is apparentlyaddressing scattered churches in Galatia and elsewhere in Asia Minor. Peter refers to a group of Paul'sletters which he himself knew about and his audience knew of. This indicates that Paul's letterswere already collected, circulating, and generally known. Liberals do not like this passage;they claim the whole book of 2 Peter is a late forgery (c130 AD), as thisevidence of collection is "too early".
f. Quotation as Authoritative.
Even in the NT, some other parts of the NT arecited as Scripture:
2 Peter 3:15‑16 "Distort Paul's letters as they dothe rest of Scripture..." implies Paul's letters are Scripture.
Have 2 quotations in NT which show authority:
1 Timothy 5:18 refers toOT and NT (Luke 10:7) under the heading, "Scripture says...," i.e.,Paul is citing Luke 10:7 as Scripture. So Gospel of Luke was in existence by this time.
Jude's parallels to 2Peter 2 and 3. The bulk of Jude islike 2 Peter chapters 2 and 3. Liberals say that 2 Peter must be late as it quotes Jude (which is knownto be late). But situation isactually the other way around: 2 Peter is so early that Jude quotes it!
Note: Jude says "The false teachers havearrived!" 2 Peter says"The false teachers are going to come!" Note which way the tense changes. Also Jude 17‑18 cites "mockers" by notingthat "the apostles said this". He is quoting from 2 Peter 3:3. Thus Jude quotes Peter to warn that the false teachers the apostles predictedare now here. Liberals claim that2 Peter is a fraud, and one which is cleverly disguised to make it looklike Jude is quoting it!
Summary: Already in the NT there is the recognition that more than the OT isScripture.
3. Indications ofrecognition as Scripture in Apostolic Fathers (95 to 130 AD).
The term AApostolic Fathers@ is used to denote a number of very earlyChristian writings from outside the NT. Four of these works come from known church leaders:
1 Clement - c95 AD - Bishop of Rome;
Ignatius - c105‑115 - Bishop of Antioch;
Polycarp - c105‑115 - Bishop of Smyrna;
Papias - c130 - Bishop of Hierapolis.
The authorship or authority of the otherliterature in this group is more fuzzy:
Shepherd of Hermas -c110‑130 AD ‑ Written by a Roman Christian whose brother Pius wasbishop of Rome.
Pseudo‑Barnabas -c130 - author unknown, not likely to have been Barnabas.
Didache - c110 ‑Church manual written and revised over a long period of time.
In this literature we find many allusions to theNT, and 3 explicit references to the NT as Scripture:
a. 1 Clement 47:
Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul theApostle. What wrote he first untoyou in the beginning of the Gospel? Of a truth he charged in the Spirit concerning himself and Cephas andApollos, because that even then you made factions.
ClementÕs letter to the Corinthians duringDomitian persecution. Church having similar problems as when Paul wrote. Had a schism and booted out their elderswithout charges. Clement obviously is citing 1 Cor. When he says, "as Paul charged you in the Spirit."he implies it is inspired Scripture. Clement also assumes Paul's letter is widely known.
b. Polycarp to Philippians12:
For I am persuaded that you are well‑trainedin the sacred writings, and nothing is hidden from you. But to myself this is not granted,only, as it is said in these scriptures, 'Be ye angry and sin not,' and 'Letnot the sun set on your wrath'.
Cites Ephesians 4:26 as included in "sacredwritings" and "these Scriptures".
c. Pseudo‑Barnabas 4:
Very allegorical. In an exhortation, quotes Matthew 22:14 under the heading,"As it is written."
d. Allusions to the NT.
Find many allusions in the Apostolic Fathers,citing the NT as authoritative. These form a spectrum of citations, ranging from direct quotes tosimilar ideas; the cutoff between allusion and similar teaching is hard to pindown. There is some dispute over how many NT books are alluded to in theApostolic Fathers. But compareallusions to NT with allusions to OT in same works.
| New Testament Books Alluded to in the Apostolic Fathers |
| Source | NT Books (#/total) | OT Books (#/total) |
| Roberts/Donaldson, ANF | 25/27 | 28/39 |
| (not 2 or 3 John) |
| Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers | 23/27 | 22/39 |
| (not 2, 3 Jn, 1 Thess, Phm) |
| Oxford Comm | 20-22/27 | no indication |
| (not 2, 3 Jn, Phm, Jude, 2 Pt; Col? 1 Thess?) |
We can use their citation of OT books as acontrol, since we know all of them were in existence by the time the ApostolicFathers were writing. OT books notcited are irrelevant historical books [Judges, Nehemiah, Ezra], and severalsmall books [Ecclesiastes, Amos, Micah, Obadiah] of little application to theearly church.
Thus the lack of citation does not mean that thebook did not exist or was not yet recognized as Scripture, but only that it wasshort or contained no "relevant" material for the particular topic the apostolic fatherwas writing about.
e. Summary.
The concept of "Scripture" is notlimited to OT material alone either by apostles or early Xn leaders. By c130 AD, all but the few shortestbooks are definitely mentioned asauthoritative.
4.Recognition in Early Heretical Writers.
Heretics of the evangelizing sort tend toconcentrate on turning aside professing Xns from the Xn faith to their ownfaith rather than trying to win pure pagans. Apparently Satan has little interest in evangelizingthose who are safely in his camp. Thus we can often learn from them what Scriptures were accepted by theorthodox, since they use these to attract prospective converts rather thantheir own particular heretical works.
When we look for allusions in writings of thegnostic heretics, we find they too make use of many NT works.
a. Basilides (c120‑140 AD)quotes from 1 Corinthians as Scripture. He alludes to several others (Mt, Lk,Jn, 2 Cor, Eph, Col, possibly 1 Tim, 1 Pet) as authoritative.
b. The Ophites (c.120‑140) werea gnostic sect which thought the snake in Eden was the good guy. Their writings refer to Matthew,Luke, John, Romans, 1 & 2 Cor, Eph, Gal, and probably Heb, Rev.
c. Marcion (c140) taught that the OT God whocreated matter was a real but lesser god compared to the God of the NT. Marcion prepared the earliestknown competing NT canon, which included only edited forms of Lukeand 10 Pauline Epistles. According to Tertullian, he removed NT references which would clearlyidentify the God of the NT with the God of the OT.
d. Valentinus (c140) authored the Gospelof Truth,recently recovered among the Nag Hammadi papyri after being lost inancient times. This work (amongothers in this group) shows that the church fathers really were pretty accuratein quoting and explaining the views of the various gnostic teachers. Valentinus cites Ephesians as Scriptureand makes other references to Mt, Lk, Jn, Rom, 1 Cor, and perhaps Heb, 1 John.
e. Summary on Early Heretics
1) They too applied the concept of Scripture tothe NT.
2) We see clear evidenceamong them for all Gospels but Mark (which, ironically, liberals like to saywas the earliest), and for all the Pauline epistles but the pastorals(which heretics would not like as they were explicitly directed againstthem. See remarks by Irenaeus, AgainstHeresies,3.11.7).
5.Recognition in the Late 2nd Century.
By the end of the 2nd century, we have even moreexplicit Christian evidence. Irenaeus' Against Heresies is as large as the gospels and is full ofdirect quotes, naming books, citing works as "Scripture", etc.
Thus we do not see the idea that the canon grewslowly over time. It appearsrather to be recognized as soon as received, then (usually) circulatedwidely. The idea of Scriptureextending beyond the OT canon to NT writings is very clear.
Some problem books:
Hebrews was extensivelycited early, then doubted as the authorship was not known.
Revelation was also usedextensively early, but later doubted because of the millennial problem.
a. Justin Martyr (130‑160 AD) inhis two apologies and his dialogue with the Jewish scholar Trypho refers to the"Gospels" called "memoirs of the apostles & those whofollowed." He uses the canonical four and no others. Justin also uses Rom, 1-2 Cor, Col, 2Th, Heb, and Rev, speaking of the last as by the apostle John.
b. Irenaeus (b 125‑40, d c200), wrote AgainstHeresies,the extensive writing mentioned above. He quotes from all the NT but Phm, 3 Jn, and poss 2 Pt and Jude. He does cite Hermas with"Scripture says." Heargues against heretical scriptures on basis of the histories of churchesfounded by the apostles.
c. Muratorian Canon (c180) is the oldestcanonical list preserved from orthodox side, prob from Rome (certainlyItaly). It is fragmentary atbeginning and end, poss also in middle, surviving only in a poor Latintranslation of the 8th cen. Itstarts with Luke as 3rd Gospel. Its present form lacks Heb, Jas, 1-2 Pt, poss 3Jn. It definitely rejectsHermas as a recent work. Itrejects works by Gnostics and Montanists, speaking of forged Paulineletters to Laodiceans and Alexandrians.
d. Tertullian (c200) converted to Xyas an adult, was trained as a lawyer and rhetorician. His voluminous writings quote from all the NT but Phm,Jas, 2-3 Jn. He definitelyaccepts Jude as authoritative. Hementions origin of Acts of Paul & Thecla (de Bapt 17).
e. Clement of Alexandria (c200) uses some of thenon-canonical Gospels, but distinguishes these from those "that havebeen handed down." Eusebiussays Clement commented on all the Cath Eps, but this work has not survived.Clement comments on Ps-Barnabas, Apocalypse of Peter, and respected Hermas andthe Preaching of Peter.
6.Towards Formal Recognition: 200‑400 AD.
a. Origen (c230) gives us some insight into thestatus of the canon question at his time. He notes that 2 categories were commonly observed by the orthodox:
1) Books acknowledged by all Christians (21/27):
4 Gospels, Acts, 13Paul, 1 Peter, 1 John, Rev.
2) Books disputed bysome Christians (6/27 + 4 outside):
Hebrews, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, James, Jude;
plus Ps‑Barnabas, Hermas, Didache, Gospelof Hebrews
b. Eusebius (c325) about a century later, provides 4categories:
(1) Acknowledged (21‑22/27):
Gospels, Acts, Paul (+ Heb), 1 Peter, 1 John,Rev.[?]
(2) Disputed butfamiliar to most (5/27):
James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude
(3) Spurious butorthodox (0‑1/27):
Acts of Paul, Hermas, Apoc. of Peter, Ps‑Barnabas,
Didache, Rev.[?], Gospel of Hebrews
(4) Heretical:
Gospels of Peter, Thomas, Matthaias, etc.;
Acts of Andrew, John, others.
c. Athanasius the great opponent ofthe Arians, later becomes bishop of Alexandria. In his Festal Letter of 369 AD, all 27 NT books are listed as canonical. He is supported by Jerome,Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus and Cyril (except the latter lacks Rev).
d. Decisions of Church Councils. Several decisions by regional churchcouncils bring the discussion of canon to a close. These include:
(1) Synod of Laodicea(365). All but Revelation,
withsome doubt about authenticity of list.
(2) Synod of Rome (382).
(3) Synod of Hippo (393).
(4) Synod of Carthage (397).
7.Summary on Canon.
The final details of the NT canon decision seemto have been providential rather than revelatory. This is the same situation we have for the OT canon, exceptthat we have Jesus' (implicit) stamp of approval on the OT results.
The councils and scholars who consideredthe matter after Xy became legal about 325 AD appear to have made good use ofthe historical information available to them (mainly continuityof use in the oldest churches). Given a view of Scripture as revelatory and inspired, no one hassuggested any other good candidates for admission.
Questions were raised about some of the shortestNT books and about Hebrews and Revelation. Though we would not want to do without any of these, nomajor doctrines of Xy depend on them alone.
What is clear is that the category of Scripturewas applied to NT writings already in the apostolic age, and that nearlyall of the NT canon was recognized as authoritative in the writings ofchurch leaders from the early second century.
With this we must be satisfied. We have neither time machines norall the information we would like on how these books came to be recognized asScripture, but it is clear that they did. God has retained in his hands the direction of history, howevermuch we want to be able to control it or pass judgment on whateverhappens. God has promised that hewill carry out his word whether we believe it or not. So we might as well trust him and do our best to be on hisside rather than the other.