I.INTRODUCTION:
REVIEWOF RELEVANT JEWISH HISTORY 750BC - AD 550
A.Exile by Assyrians and Babylonians
1.Assyrians destroy Northern Kingdom, 722 BC
2.Babylonians destroy Southern Kingdom, 587 BC
Bothinvolved deportation of surviving population, starting a dispersion whichcontinues to present.
Alsoled to important language changes.
Importationof pagans in northern region led to beginning of Samaritans (Cuthians).
B.Return under Persians, 537 BC
1.Reestablishes a minority of Jews back in homeland; very small beginning, butgradually augmented, esp. in Hasmonean period.
2.Temple rebuilt, 515 BC, so Jerusalem regains centrality for Jews; in fact, Jewscall I.T. period "2nd temple" period; high priesthood againfunctioning.
3.Walls rebuilt, 445 BC, so Jerus. able to defend self more successfully fromsurrounding enemies.
4.Work of Ezra during this period signif. in keeping Jews from assimilating topagans round about (since exile Jews more resistant to idolatry, paganism).
C.Alexander & the Greeks
1.Alexander the Great, 333 BC
Takescontrol of Near East away from Persians
IntroducesGk lang & culture into area (not absolutely, but in far stronger way thanever before) by establishing empire, incl. Hellenistic cities.
Alexandriabecomes major city of E Med; Jews there granted some sort of"citizen" rights; becomes largest Jewish center outside Pal.
2.The Ptolemies, 301 BC
Grabcontrol of Pal in struggle for succession among Alex's generals
Controlof Pal lasts to 198 BC, Ptol dynasty to 30 BC
GradualHellenization (in contrast to Antiochus 4, below)
Originof LXX
3.The Seleucids, 198 BC
Gotcontrol of Mesopot, Asia Minor in breakup of Alex's empire
Finallytook Pal from Ptolemies in 198 BC
Moreproblems in Seleucid enpire w/ diversity of subjects than in Ptolemaic:
‑‑used Jews as citizens in Hellenistic cities of Asia M.
‑‑Antiochus 4 tried to force Hellenism on Pal Jews when unsuccessful takingEgypt, 168 BC
D.The Hasmoneans, 168 BC
1.Maccabean revolt, 168 BC
Beyondall expectation (some very striking providences) Jews beat Seleucid armies inlong series of campaigns
Concessionsfrom Sel's restore religious liberty
Divisionsbegin w/in Sel empire, allowing Jews to become effectively independent
2.Hasmonean independence, c 140 BC
Largearea comes under control of Jews, due to aggressive policies of John Hyrcanus,Alex Jannaeus
Manygentiles incorporated into country
‑‑Idumeans forced to become Jews
‑‑Samaritan temple destroyed
Newareas settled by Jews:
--Galilee
--Perea
E.The Jewish State under the Romans, 63 BC
1.The Herodians
Cometo power as client kings under Romans
Antipater(procurator) 47 BC
Phasael& Herod (tetrarchs) 42 BC
Herodthe Great (king) 40 BC
Archelaus(ethnarch), Antipas & Philip (tetrarchs) 4 BC AgrippaI (king) AD 37
AgrippaII (king, but not over Judea) AD 48
HerodGt hated by Jews as Idumean, but loyal to Rome
AgrippaI loved by many Jews as also Hasmonean, more consistent Jew; ambivalence due topressures, groups
2.The Roman Procurators, AD 6
Beginw/ replacement of Archelaus, deposed for misgovt at request of Jews; continueover Judea exc AD 41‑44
Ingeneral Romans did not understand Jews, freq antagonistic, aggravating conds(& so strengthening Zealots)
3.First Revolt, AD 66
Startedby incident at Caesarea, spread & fanned by Rom procurator & Zealots toengulf whole country
Endedin destruction of Jerusalem (incl Temple) and Jewish state
F.Judaism after Fall of Jerusalem, AD 70
1.R. Johannan b Zakkai & Jamnia, AD 70
RebuildingJudaism w/o state or temple along lines of Pharisaism
2.R. Akiba & Bar Kochba (2nd) Revolt, AD 132
Setoff by Roman preparations to build a pagan city Aelia Capitolina on site ofJerusalem
Akibarecognizes Simeon b Koseba as Messiah & fulf of Num 24:17 (star = Kochba)
Revoltput down w/ substantial slaughter; Jews forbidden to come near Jerus (Aelia)
3.R. Judah & the Mishnah, c AD 200
Gradualcompilation of Pharisaic oral tradition since Hillel & Shammai; nowcodified by subject‑matter as Mishnah
Aboutsame time collection of oral trad grouped around Pentateuchal passages, calledMidrash
Bothmaterials can also be subdivided into 2 types by content:
‑‑halakah: legal pronouncments
‑‑haggadah: other materials, interp, edification
4.The Rise of the Talmuds, AD 400‑550
Mishnahvery concise, so rabbinical schools developed large addenda, both oldermaterial left out of Mishnah (baraita) & newer material explaining, discussing Mishnah
Thisadditional material called Gemara
Talmud= Mishnah + Gemara
TwoTalmuds:
--Pal or Jerus Talmud: Pal discussions thru c AD 400
--Bab Talmud: Mesopot discussions thru c AD 550
formerincomplete; tho earlier, less influential latter became official tradition ofJudaism
II.THE TARGUMS
A.The Synagogue Service and Targumming
1.The Origin of the Synagogue Service
don'treally know origin of synagogue, but generally thought to have arisen duringBabylonian exile
certainlyfunctioned as place of worship, prayer and Bible study in diaspora during lateIT period
centralfeature of service in synagogue was pubic reading from Scripture (Pentateuchreading primary; some think reading of prophets arose when Antiochus 4 forbadreading Pentateuch)
2.Rise of Aramaic
hadbeen major language of Syria for centuries
becameimportant international language during great empires (Assyrian, Babylonian,Persian)
Jewsin Babylonian diaspora prob moved from Heb to Aram in a couple of generations
Jewsin Palestine may have changed over more slowly, but prob very substantialbefore end Pers period (330 BC)
3.Targumming
fromtirgem ‑ totranslate, explain; general word for translating, but noun targum only for Heb to Aram
withmajority of Jews not understanding Heb well, oral translaation added to readingof Heb in syn service
attestedas custom in Mishnah, so long before AD 200; app common in last centuries BC(Rab traces it to Ezra, meforashin Neh 8:8)
rulesfor targumming in m. Meg 4:4‑10; b. Meg 23b‑25b; t. Meg 4:20‑41:(m= mishnah; b= bab talm; t = tosefta)
‑‑Pentafter every v; prophets after every 3 vv
‑‑Biblereader could not prompt translator
‑‑someportions not to be translated, e.g., Gen 35:22 (Reuben & Bilhah); othersnot to be read in Heb either!, e.g., Num 6:24‑26 (priestly blessing); 2Sam 11‑13 (David & Bathsheba, Amnon & Tamar)
‑‑notjust literal trans, but often paraphrased (yet see R. Judah b. Ilai: whoevertranslates literally is a liar, he who makes additions is a blasphemer!)
4.Written Targums
alreadyin existence by 1st cen AD (tJob mentioned in connection w/ Gamaliel I andfound at Qumran), but app not official eds.; for private study only
Palestiniantargs app in written form by 2nd cen AD, as Aram not vernacular thereafter
Babtargs app borrowed from Pal, edited; become official in 3rd cen
by9th‑10th cen targumming disappears in Babylonia also;
todayonly done by Yemenite Jews
B.The Extant Written Targums
1.Targums to the Pentateuch
(referencesto Etheridge [e] are to vol 1 unless marked 2e)
a.Targum of Onkelos (Babylonian)
officialPent targum thru middle ages
natureof text, some external refs. suggest off. ed. made in Babylon 3rd cenAD
contentsuggests Pal origin in 2nd cen
name:tradition in b. Meg 3a; generally thought this is confusionwith Gk trans of Aquila since parallel in y. Meg (y= jer talm) reads "Akylos" & def. refs. to Greek
characteristics:
‑‑mostliteral of targums very close to MT even in gramm structure
‑‑occasionalparaphrase
espin poetic sections (e.g., Gen 49 e150‑4)
--halakahoften read into legal sections (Ex 21:16 e393 "house of Israel")
--offensivematerial toned down (Gen 20:13 e75; Ex 24:11 e400)
--carefullyremoves anthropomorphisms (Ex 24:10 e400)
--figurativelang explained (Gen 49:25 e153; Ex 15:3,8,10 e379)
--geognames sometimes updated (Gen 10:10 e54 Babel for Shinar; Deut 3:17 2e480)
b.Palestinian Targum (sometimes called Jerusalem or Galilean)
appnever a single authoritative version; several forms survive:
(1)Pseudo‑Jonathan (TY I)
proba form of PT later influenced by Onkelos
somecontents pre‑Xn: Gen 15:19 (e204), Num 24:21 (2e431, Salmeansassoc w/ Nabateans); Deut 33:11 (2e675) prob refers to John Hyrcanus
othercontents quite late: Ex 26:9 (e530‑1): six orders of Mishnah; Gen 21:21(e223): 2 wives of Ishmael given names of Muhammad's wife& daughter; Gen 49:26 (e334) & Deut 33:2 (2e674): Edom (RE) & Ishmaelseen as 2 world powers
name:ascribed to Jonathan b. Uzziel (see prophets targum) in middle ages, prob due to misreading abbrev of targ yerushalmi
characteristics:
‑‑muchmore paraphrastic than Onkelos (each Pal targ has paraphrases peculiar to self)
‑‑alsocontains midrashim (comment, illustration more or less rel to text)
‑‑thusabundant info on Jewish views from talmudic periodat least
‑‑somematerial very helpful in illustrating NT texts
(2)Fragmentary Targum materials (TY II)
twotypes of material here:
‑‑somematerials known for centuries as collection app taken from margins of Onkelosmss (this is what is properlycalled the "fragment targum")
‑‑fragmentsof old mss of Pal targ found in cleaning of Cairo Geniza (properly CGfragments)
extent& date:
‑‑onlyabout 850 vv extant, c3/4 historical, 1/4 legal ‑‑notall contemporary:
mostolder than targ Ps‑Jon
somequite late (e.g., ref to Turks taking Constantinople, 1453)
(3)Codex Neofiti I
importance: first complete ms of Pal Targ,discovered by A. Diez‑Machoin Vatican library in 1956; ms itself written 1504 (about same age asOnkelos mss)
characteristics:
‑‑muchcloser to Ps‑Jon & Frag than to Onkelos
‑‑lackslate refs. in Ps‑Jon
‑‑contentprob pre‑Xn, w/ final ed. in 2nd cen AD
‑‑differsfrom Ps‑Jon in orthography, grammar, range ofparaphrase
2.Targums to the Prophets
a.Targum of Jonathan (Babylonian)
officialprophets targ thru middle ages
likeOnkelos, thought to be Bab reworking of Pal orig
presentform thought to date from 3rd‑7th cen (some disagreement)
tradon origin (b. Meg 3a):
‑‑writtenby Jonathan b. Uzziel (1st cen AD, student of Hillel) at dictation of Haggai,Zechariah, Malachi!
‑‑whenpublished, earthquake, voice from heaven: "Who has revealed my secrets tomen?"
‑‑Jonb. U. wanted to translate Writings also, but forbidden by voice from heaven
characteristics:
‑‑veryuniform style throughout, sugg. off. ed.
‑‑closeto Onkelos, esp. in historical parts, but somewhat more paraphrase (ratherdrastic in poetry, difficult vv)
‑‑occasionalreading not in MT (e.g., Josh 8:12)
‑‑propernames sometimes transformed by guessing (e.g., Jer 46:25: No = Alexandria)
‑‑interestingMessianic interpretations in Isa (see Levey in bibliography)
b.Palestinian Targum
extantonly in scattered quotations, mostly from Rashi & Kimchi
extractsshow influence of b. Talmud, so represent later ed. at least
3.Targums to the Writings
individualtargs covering all OT but Ezra, Nehemiah,
Danielnot official, not used in synagogues nor (prob) schools
seemto be basically Pal from Talmudic period or later
a.Job & Psalms
twoseem to have same author
tJobnot same as found at Qumran
someearly elements, but basically after split RE (c 385) & before fall RE (476)
b.Proverbs
veryclose to Syriac Peshitta, 1/3 to 1/2 word‑for‑word
c.Megilloth (Ruth, Eccl, SongS, Lam, Est)
paraphrastic,haggadic, midrashic
probmostly post‑Talmudic, tho Est tannaitic
SS:allegory of God & Israel
d.Chronicles
so little known as to miss getting inearly printed eds. of Targums
closecontacts with Pal targ Pentateuch in style, paraphrase, but infl by b. Talmud
C.Modern Reference Sources for the Targum
1.Aramaic Text Only
AlexanderSperber, The Bible in Aramaic.Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1959‑68.
22pp intro in vol I; very brief in other vols
hasdifferent vocalization system than MT
volI: The Pentateuch acc to Targum Onkelos
volII: The Former Prophets acc to Targ Jonathan
volIII: The Latter Prophets acc to T. Jonathan
volIV A: The Hagiographa
2.Bilingual Text
Aberbach& Grossfeld, Targum Onkelos to Genesis. N.Y.: Ktav, 1982.
18pp intro; Sperber text (more or less) w/ English on facing pages andexplanatory footnotes
bibliographyand indices
3.English Text Only
a.J.W. Etheridge, The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel on thePentateuch with Fragments of the Jerusalem Targum. 2 vols, 1862‑65; reprinted in one vol: New York: Ktav, 1968.
34pp intro
foreach book, gives Onkelos 1st, Ps‑Jon 2nd
fewhelps
b.M. McNamara, The Aramaic Bible: The Targums. Wilmington:M. Glazier, 1987‑
volsready listed below:
20pp intro
textsin English with notes
1a:Neofiti on Genesis
1b:Ps-Jonathan on Genesis
10:T. Jonathan of Former Prophets
11:Isaiah Targum
12:Targum of Jeremiah
13:Targum of Ezekiel
14:Minor Prophets
15:Job, Proverbs, Qoheleth
18:Esther (two targums)
D.Value of Targums for NT Background
1.Linguistic
manyterms & idioms like those in NT, often not found elsewhere in Jewish lit(incl OT)
strongestsimilarities in Pal targ (esp. Neofiti),
leastin Onkelos: e.g.,
"beforeGod": Lk 12:6; 15:10,18,21
Gen20:6: Pal (e219) & Onk (e274) have "sinning before me" where MThas "sinning against me"
Ex3:4: Pal (e449) has "it was seen before the Lord" where Onk has"Lord saw"
(McNamara,Targ & Test, 93‑95,gives numerous examples) "answered& said": freq in Gospels
Dalmanclaimed this not authentic, but from Gk writers using LXX
McNamara(110) shows this common in Pal targ, even when Heb notfollowed
"Jannes& Jambres": 2 Tim 3:8
Ex7:11: Pal (e461) has same names; Onk follows MT
Num22:22: two servants of Balaam so named (Pal 2e419) "sign"for miracle: esp in John
Gen28:10: Pal (e252‑3): 5 signs done for Jacob
"seconddeath": cp Ps‑Jn Deut 33:6 (2e674) w/ Rev 2:11; 20:6,14; 21:8
2.Exegetical
seepopular understanding of various OT passages acc to anc synagogue (not always =Talmud later)
Gen6:1ff: "sons of God"
Ps‑Jon(e176‑7): "sons of great" angelic in context
Onk:"sons of mighty" ambiguous
Neof:"sons of judges" not angelic in text, but angelic in margin
Gen14:18: Pal (e199) identifies Melchizedek as Shem
Gen15:12: Pal (e202) explains "terror, darkness, great & falling" as4 kingdoms to oppress Israel: Babylon, Medes, Greeks, & (app) Parthians; v 17 explained as"Gehinnom"
Num21:8‑9: bronze serpent: cp Ps‑Jn (2e411) w/ Jn 3:14‑15
3.Theological
likewisegives popular theol of ancient synagogue, explaining, removing difficulties
legalism:see remarks to serpent in Pal Targ Gen 3 (e166); cp Onk, Ps‑Jon & Palon Noah (e47,177)
avoidanceof anthropomorphism:
noteincident of God & Abraham, Gen 18, esp Pal (e209‑14)
Ex24:10: vision of God: Onk (e400), Pal (e526)
Messiah:see Levey, Edersheim (app IX)
e.g.,Levey (63) on Isa 52:13: note what targumist does to atonement
Levey(7‑11) on Gen 49:10ff: seems to support understanding of"Shiloh" as "him to whom it belongs"
"Memra"‑ word; regularly used in place of God; Gen 15:6 (e63,201); Num 24:23(2e432); debate continues today whether anc Jews saw multiplicity in Godhead;liberals & mod Jews deny it (see Strack‑Billerbeck), but Etheridgethinks something to it (14‑25); McNamara (102‑03) doesn't go as faras Eth, but thinks targ usage influenced John in choice of words in Jn 1:1ff
III.THE SEPTUAGINT
A.History of the Septuagint
1.Its Origin
a.According to the Letter of Aristeas
(1)letter by Gentile Aristeas, influential courtier of Ptolemy 2, to friend Philocrates
(2)Ptol 2 building greatest library in world; librarian Demetrius mentions Jewish Law(presumably Pentateuch), which will need to be translated
(3)Ptol gets Jewish high priest Eleazar to send 6 elders from each tribe (72) toAlexandria to make translation
(4)translators work together, finish in 72 days; work approved by Alex Jews
b.Later Additions to Story
(1)Philo (Life of Moses2:25‑44)
translatorsinspired; agree tho separated
(2)Justin (Apol 1.31; Dialogue 68,71)
Herod(!) involved; translation more than Pentateuch
(3)Epiphanius (Weights & Measures3,6)
36pairs in different rooms; trans incls Apocrypha
c.Evaluation of Story
(1)Date (1st ½ of 3rd cen BC), place (Alexandria) and extent oftrans (Pentateuch) usually accepted from Aristeas; trans prob also official,done by committee; many doubt Ptol 2 involved; mss may have been from Jerus;Greek dialect looks Alexandrian
(2)Rest of OT translated at various times by various unknown persons, but probcomplete by 125 BC (see Prologue to Ecclesiasticus); still uncertain whetheronly one translation or more in several books: Daniel, Judges, Samuel‑Kings
2.Use of Septuagint
a.Among Jews
(1)Initially very favorable to LXX
seeAristeas, Philo, Josephus
(2)Become unfavorable as Xns use LXX against them
Dialogue 68, 71‑73: argument over Jewish orXn tampering withtext of LXX ; Talmud: trans of LXX sin 2nd only to golden calf
(3)Eventually abandon LXX
firstfor other Gk translations (esp Aquila, see below)
thenabandon Gk altogether in Byz period
b.Among Christians
(1)Adopted both use & attitudes from Jews in 1st cen as few Gentile Xns knewHebrew
(2)LXX became basis of trans into Latin, Syriac, Coptic, tho L & S trans maybe pre‑Xn
(3)LXX continues to present as OT of Gk Orthodox Ch
3.Other Versions of OT in Greek
(probsome early competition for LXX, but explicit information for other versionsfrom 2nd cen AD)
a.Aquila (c 130 AD)
Jewishproselyte; super‑literal; to replace LXX for Jews
b.Theodotion (c 180 AD)
Jewishproselyte or Ebionite; revision of LXX in direction of MT; but evid of proto‑Theodin Revelation
c.Symmachus (late 2nd‑early 3rd cen)
Ebionite;meaning of Heb in good Gk style; poss revision of Aquila using LXX & Theo
d.Other Versions
fragmentsand references to 3 others (Origen called these Quinta, Sexta, Septima);some evid that something like Theo's version pre‑Xn; also some think aproto‑Lucian existed
4.Text of the LXX
dueto restoration attempts of Origen, Lucian & Hesychius, now very difficultto restore, as most mss postdate them (225‑300)
havea few frags from Pal, Egypt which are pre‑Xn or at least pre‑Origen
B.Modern Reference Sources for the Septuagint
1.Greek Text Only
a.Alfred Rahlfs, ed. Septuaginta8th ed. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Wuerttembergische Bibelanstalt, 1965.
48pp of intro in German, English, Latin
eclectictext, with notes only for major uncials
Apocryphaincluded with biblical text
Vol1: Law & history:
incl1 Esdras, Judith, Tobit, 1‑4 Maccabees
Vol2: Books of Poetry & Prophecy:
inclOdes, Sirach, Pss Solomon, Baruch, Ep Jer, Susanna, Bel & Dragon
b.Alan E. Brooke and Norman Mclean, eds., The Old Testament in Greek. Cambridge:University Press, 1906‑40.
so‑called"Cambridge" edition
massivetextual notes
followstext of Vaticanus supplemented w/ other uncials
incompletein 3 vols of multiple parts:
Vol1: Genesis thru Ruth
Vol2: Sam, Kings, Chron, Esdras, Ezr‑Neh
Vol3: Est, Jud, Tob
c.Goettingen Literary Society, Septuaginta. Goettingen:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1931‑
so‑called"Goettingen" edition
massivetextual notes
movingcloser to completion in 16 vols of multiple parts
Vols1‑3: Pentateuch (ready)
Vols5‑7: History (not ready)
Vol 8: Esdras, Esther, Judith, Tobit(partly done)
Vols9‑12: Pss, Job, Wisd Sol, Sirach (partly done)
Vols13‑16: Prophets (w/ adds to Jer and Dan)
2.Bilingual
SirLancelot C.L. Brenton, ed. TheSeptuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1986. Reprint of 1851 Bagster edition.
only6 pp introduction
obviouslynot very up‑to‑date on text questions
Apocryphaseparate at end
3.English Translation Only
CharlesThomson and C. A. Muses, eds. TheSeptuagint Bible. IndianHills, CO: Falcon's Wing Press, 1954.
24pp introduction
studentsat Nyack helped Muses in revision
noApocrypha
C.Value of Septuagint for NT Background
1.Exegetical, Theological
generalattempt in LXX to be closely literal, except in Isaiah, Daniel, Job, Proverbs
a.Changes to avoid anthropomorphisms (see Swete, 327)
e.g.,Ex 24:10: "they saw place where God of Israel stood";
Josh4:24: "power" of LORD for "hand"
b.Changes to agree with halakah (327)
Gen2:2: God finishes on 6th day, not 7th
Lev24:7: salt added with incense
c.Freedom with metaphors (329)
Gen6:2: "angels" of God
Num24:17: "a man" will arise instead of "sceptre"
d.Many erroneous translations, esp outside Pent
e.g.,"eis to telos" for "lamaneseach" in Ps titles
e.Midrash (interpretive paraphrase)
ingeneral LXX like more literal targums, but Daniel contains much paraphrase(poss why LXX Dan replaced by Theodotion in almost all mss)
f.Some interpretations of interest
Gen6:4: "gigantes" for "nephilim"
Isa7:14: "parthenos" for "almah"
Ps40:7 (LXX 39): "soma" for "ozanayim" (cp Heb 10:5)
2.Linguistic
LXXin existence for 200‑300 yr before writing of NT;
substantiallyinfluenced meaning of many Gk words:
about150 words in NT vocab only found elsewhere in LXX (Swete, 452);
formany others found elsewhere, NT meaning closer to LXX than other usages; examples:
"ekklesia":
paganGk: political assembly
LXX:congregation of Israel
"diatheke":
paganGk: will, treaty, agreement
LXX:covenant
"agape":
paganGk: rare word
LXX:common, prob due to desire to avoid pagan connotations of love, poss because of linguistic resemblance to Heb"ahevah"
IV.THE APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
A.Description of the Writings
1.Definitions
someconfusion due to two distinct meanings for each term "apocrypha" and"pseudeipgrapha"; we are interested in (1) under each:
a.Apocrypha
(1)anc Jewish books which do not appear in Heb Bible but werecommonly copied w/ OT in Gk and Lat Bibles; later officially accepted by RC(1546) and GO (1672) Churches;
(2)broader def: non‑canonical books
b.Pseudepigrapha
(1)other anc Jewish books not found in Heb, Gk or Lat Bibles but accepted amongsome oriental churches (e.g., Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Ethiopic)
(2)books of false authorship
2.The Apocrypha
somedisagreement on exact content:
Eissfeldt& Charles include 3 Macc; KJV & NEB do not
KJV& NEB incl 4 Ezra; Eiss & Chas do not
willfollow Charles for groupings below:
a.Historical Books
(1)1 Esdras (3 Ezra)
anaggravating name situation here:
ENGLISH GREEK LATIN
Ezra Esdras"2" Esdras I
Nehemiah Esdras "3" Esdras II
3Ezra Esdras"1" Esdras III
4Ezra Esdrasapoc Esdras IV
1Esd (3 Ezr) is a trans of the end of 2 Chron, Ezra and a little of Neh with onelarge addition and two very small ones:
longadd: a contest between 3 pages at court before Dariusto answer Q: what is most powerful thing in world? won by Zerubbabel w/ doubleanswer: women & truth; reward is permission to rebuild temple
Date:Eissfeldt (E): 2nd cen BC; ZPEB (Z): 150‑50 BC
(2)1 Maccabees
historyof period from Alexander (333) to Jn Hyrcanus (134‑103), concentratingon Macc period 175‑134
highlyregarded historically
Date:E: late 2nd BC; Z: same
(3)2 Maccabees
epitomeof 5‑book history by Jason of Cyrene
coverssimilar period to 1 Macc, c 180‑160
miraculouspunishment of Heliodorus in ch 3 usually viewed w/ suspicion
moreemphasis on individuals persecuted by Antiochus
consideredof historical value but not = 1 Macc
Date:Jason of Cyrene: E: late 2nd BC; Z: mid‑2nd
2Macc: E: 1st BC; Z: before 50 BC
(4)3 Maccabees
badtitle, since events covered earlier than Macc period
attemptof Ptol 4 to enter Temple c 217, stopped by miraculouspunishment; how he tried to force Egyptian Jews to worship idols, tried to killthem when they resisted, but 3x mirac. delivered; Ptol 4 repents
Date:E: late 1st BC; Z: 1st BC
b.Books Quasi‑Historical with Moral Purpose
(1)Tobit
rathercomplex historical novel of how Tobias restores his father Tobit's eyesightand fortune, rescues a damsel Sarah from a demon & marries her, all w/ aidof angel Raphael; set in Nineveh & Media
Date:E: prob pre‑Macc; Z: 4th‑3rd cen BC, prob c 200
(2)Judith
virtuouswidow Judith saves town of Bethulia from Assyrian army by winning confidence of Gen Holofernes & cutting offhis head
someserious historical blunders: Nebuchadnezzar, Nineveh, post‑exile; yet poss some hist basis
Date:E: 2nd BC; Z: same
c.Wisdom Literature
(1)Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach (ben Sirach, Ecclesiasticus)
proverbialwisdom & poems, incl exhortations & passages in praise of theforefathers, the scribes & high priest Simon
morespecifically Jewish than OT wisdom lit
Date:E: prob written by Pal Jew c 190 BC, trans by own grandson in Egyptc 120; Z: same
(2)Wisdom of Solomon
prose& poetry in praise of wise, pious & wisdom;
miraclesof wisdom in sacred history from Adam to Joshua;
foolishnessof ungodly & idolatry
moreHellenistic infl than in Sirach
Date:E: 1st BC; Z: same; Nickelsburg (N): early 1st AD
d.Additions to and Completions of Canonical Books
(1)Additions to Esther
mostlyto add piety to canonical Esther, which never mentions God explicitly
incldream of Morecai & its interp, two prayers, two edicts& a little add narrative
Date:E: mid‑2nd BC; Z: c 100 BC
(2)Additions to Daniel
(a)Prayer of Azariah (Abednego)
songof lament inserted as prayer in fiery furnace
Date:Z: time of Ant 4?
(b)Song of Three Young Men (or 3 Holy Children)
hymnof praise inserted as praise in fiery furnace
Date:no guesses
(c)Susanna
piouswife of Bab Jew charged w/ adultery by two men whose advances she had refused;Daniel convicts them of false witness
Date:Z: 2nd or 1st BC
(d)Bel and Dragon:
actuallytwo "detective" stories:
[1]Daniel proves to king that idol Bel is not eating his sacrifices
[2]Daniel kills dragon worshiped by Babylonians, so is thrown to lions; Danpreserved w/ aid from Habakkuk
Date:Z: 2nd BC
(3)Book of Baruch (1 Baruch)
prayerof confession, poems of exhortation to return to law, lamentation, consolation
Date:E: early 1st BC; Z: 2nd BC‑1st AD; N: 164‑116 BC
(4)Letter of Jeremiah
oftengiven as 6th chap of Baruch
superscriptionclaims it is letter sent by Jer to Bab exiles
warningagainst idolatry; idols not gods, but man‑made Date:E: no later than 2nd BC; Z: 3rd BC‑1st AD
(5)Prayer of Manasseh
basedon 2 Chron 33:12‑13
prayerof confession & forgiveness
E:prob 1st AD; Z: 2nd BC‑1st AD, prob Macc
3.The Pseudepigrapha
a.Primitive History Rewritten from Standpoint of Law
(1)Book of Jubilees
retellingof Gen 1 ‑ Ex 12, providing a chronology in terms of 364‑dayyears, sabbath‑cycles & jubilees;
readsmuch of Mosaic law back into Patriarchal period Date:E: c 100 BC; Z: c 150 BC; N: 175‑100 BC
b.Sacred Legends
(1)Letter of Aristeas
storyof trans of Heb Pent into Gk at time of Ptol 2
authorrepresents self as pagan, but prob Alex Jew
somefeatures historical, not sure how much
Date:E: end 2nd BC; Z: same
(2)Life of Adam and Eve; Apocalypse of Moses
tworelated works of haggadah on Adam & Eve
fillingin materials not in Scripture, incl events leading up to death & burial of each
Date:E: Xn modifications of Jew work from time of Herod's temple; Z: similar
(3)Martyrdom of Isaiah (incl in Ascension of Isa)
Isasawn in two at command of Manasseh; [sees vision of Jesus Christ; visionary ascof Isa to heaven, hearing commands re/Christ's ministry]
Date:E: martyrdom prob 1st BC; rest is Xn, prob 2nd AD
c.Apocalypses
(1)1 Enoch (Bk of Enoch, Ethiopic Enoch)
visionaryjourneys of En thru world & underworld;
angelology;Messianic prediction; astronomical &
calendriclore; vision of world history in symbols;
admonitionsto righteousness
generallyagreed to be composite of several works
Date:E: oldest parts prob pre‑Macc, latest 2nd AD
(2)2 Enoch (Secrets of Enoch, Slavonic Enoch)
visionaryjourney of En thru heavens; revelations re/
creation& world history to flood; admonitions to sons
Date:complex history: E: a late Xn work (7th AD), but app dep on Jew work before AD70; Charlesworth (C): late 1st cen pre‑Xn to late medieval
(3)Testaments of 12 Patriarchs
dyingadmonitions & predictions of Jacob's 12 sons based on a characteristic deed of each
disagreementat present on whether
(a)basically Xn using some Jewish material
(b)basically Jew w/ some Xn editing
latternow favored as T Levi and T Naph at Qumran
Date:Z: parts 2nd BC; final form 2nd AD
(4)Testament (Assumption) of Moses
Mosesreveals to Joshua hist of Israel from conquest thru dawn ofgolden age
somereason to believe that allusion in Jude 9 to Michaeldisputing w/ Satan over Moses' body once in this work, tho not now
Date:C,E,Z : early 1st AD
(5)2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch)
previewof world history to time of Messiah in form of symbolic visions; problem ofJerusalem's destruction answered; exhortation to faithfulness to law
Date:C: early 2nd AD; E: 2nd AD; Z: 70‑150 AD
(6)3 Baruch (Greek Apocalypse of Baruch)
complainton fate of Jerusalem leads to visit to differentheavens (thru #5)
nature:some Xn influence? Xn reworking of Jewish tradition?
Date:C: uncertain: 1st or 2nd AD? E: mid 2nd AD
(7)4 Ezra (2 Esdras)
sevenvisions of Ezra in 30th yr after fall Jerusalem answering his Qs re/ destruction of city, # of saved, picturing Messiah
Ezrais commissioned to restore destroyed Scriptures (incl 70hidden books)
Date:C,E: commonly AD 100, 30 yrs after 2nd fall; but four chapters later Xn (say3rd AD)
(8)Sibylline Oracles
collectionof oracles in style of pagan Sibyl (viewed as dau‑in‑lawof Noah) written by Jews and Xns, later collected w/ pagan ones c 6th AD [origSib Oracles app destroyed in Roman fire 82 BC]
12books survive, mostly Xn or Jewish material
d.Psalms
(1)Psalms of Solomon
18psalms, w/ parallels to canonical; somewhat greater reflective element; freqcontasts betw righteous & wicked; no claim to be by Solomon
outlookclosest to Pharisees
Date:E: hist allusions sugg 1st BC; Z: 1st or 2nd BC
e.Ethics and Wisdom Literature
(1)4 Maccabees
philosophicaltreatise/speech on reason as ruler of passions; examples from OT, but mostly from Macc martyrs
Date:E: 1st BC or AD; Z: 50 BC‑38 AD; N: c 40 AD
[This covers all works in Charles &Eissfeldt, except that Charles includes (1) "Story of Ahikar," notJewish; (2) "Frag of Zadokite Work," from Qumran; and (3) "PirkeAboth," rabbinic; a much more extensive list is given in Grudem (seebibl.); Charlesworth has c 63 works, many much later: 27 in vol 1; 36 in vol 2]
B.Modern Reference Sources for Apoc/Pseud
1.Original Languages
Appno single work has all in original languages, which vary from Hebrew, Aramaic,Greek, Latin, to Ethiopic
Bibliographyof sources in Charles, Charlesworth (below) and Grudem (bibliography)
2.English Translations:
a.Charles, R. H., ed. TheApocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913.
VolI: Apocrypha
13works, including 3 Maccabees
VolII: Pseudepigrapha
17works, including 3 not considered Pseud today
Eachbook has extensive introduction, bibliography (rather old by now) and textnotes
b.Charlesworth, James H., ed. TheOld Testament Pseudepigrapha.2 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1983‑85.
Vol1: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments
27works (some much later date than in Charles)
Vol2: Expansions of the "O.T." and Legends, Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms and Odes, Fragments of Lost Judeo‑Hellenistic Works
36works (some much later)
Eachbook has introduction, (up‑to‑date) bibliography and text notes,generally less extensive than Charles
c.Ginzburg, Louis. The Legends ofthe Jews. 7 vols.Philadelphia: Jewish PublicationSoc., 1909‑38.
VolsI‑IV: text
VolsV‑VI: reference notes
VolVII: index
Areadable narrative text of the various extra‑Biblical stories arranged byperiods in OT biblical history, with detailed scholarly references and commentsput in separate volumes.
Importantsource for locating Jewish legendary material.
C.Value of Apoc/Pseud for N.T. Background
1.Geographical & Linguistic Background
doubtlesssome value here, but not one of its stronger areas
2.Cultural Background
manyexamples of popular views among Jews, valuable for comparison & contrastwith NT (and OT): e.g.,
a.Tobit 2: burial of dead, piety, uncleanness
b.Judith 8: widowhood, mourning, sackcloth, fasting
c.1 Enoch 72: sun a chariot coming thru gates
(moreof same in 2 Enoch 12‑14)
d.2 Macc 7: martyrdom for law
e.Asc Isa 2:7‑11: mourning prophets (cp Jn Baptist)
3.Historical Background
a.1 Enoch 1:9 quoted in Jude 14‑15
realtradition? ad hominem against heretics?
b.Asc Isa 3:1‑12; 5:1‑14: martyrdom of Isa
morelikely to include real hist information
probreferred to in Heb 11:37
c.1 Macc 4:36‑59: rededication of profaned temple
cpJn 10:22; origin of festival of lights, Hannukah
d.1 Macc 4:44‑46; 9:23‑27; 14:41
noprophets then coming, tho not ruling out future prophets
4.Exegetical Background
a.Gen 1:6; 11:1ff: cp 3 Bar 3
towerof Babel to bore thru heaven to see if made of clay, brass or iron (but Goddidn't let them!)
b.Gen 6:1ff: cp Jub 5; 1 Enoch 6‑7
fallof angels; giants 3000 ells high (over a mile!); C gives 300 cubits, but stillabout 500 ft
c.Dan 7:9‑14: cp 1 Enoch 46:1ff
Sonof Man = Elect One
5.Theological Background
a.Demons: Tobit 6:1‑8; 8:1‑8
(tofinish story: 11:6‑15, recovery of father)
b.Idolatry: Apoc Abr 5
howAbr discovers folly of idolatry
c.Messiah: much in many places
1En 45‑54; 61‑62; 71; 90; T Levi 18; T Judah 24; Sib Or 3,5; 2 Bar 27‑30; 72‑74;4 Ezra 7, 12‑13; etc. considerable variety; likewise consid. var. ineschatology
d.Prayer for dead: 2 Macc 12:38‑45
contrast1 Jn 5:16‑17
e.Canon & pseudepigrapha: 4 Ezra 14
concedesthat 24 books of Scripture known publicly since Ezra's time; tries to explain(70) pseudepigrapha as equally old but secret
V.QUMRAN
A.Discovery and Authenticity of the Dead Sea Scrolls
1.First Finds
Bedouinboy (Muhammad adh‑Dhib) looking for lost goat finds 8 scrolls in cave(Feb or Mar 1947)
Bethlehemantiquities dealer refuses to buy for £20
Later5 of them bought by Mar Samuel, archbp of Syrian Orthodox Monastery inJerusalem; other 3 by E. Sukenik of Heb Univ
EventuallySukenik's son Y. Yadin bought the 5 for $ ¼ million in 1954, so all these now owned by Israel
2.Later Finds
Cavefrom which 1st DSS discovered located by archeologists in 1949 (nowlabeled cave 1)
Between1952‑56, ten more caves discovered, some by archeology teams, but mostimportant two (4 & 11) by Bedouin
Totalfinds: 10 complete scrolls, 1000s of fragments, representing perhaps 600 mss:
Biblicalworks: all of OT but Esther
Apoc/Pseud:frags in Heb/Aram from Sirach, Tobit, Judith, Enoch (pts I,III‑V), Jub, TLevi, Zadok Frag, plus others prev unknown (Qumran prob source of some)
Bible‑related:retelling of Biblical narrative w/ elaborations; commentaries; collections oftexts
Sectarian:Man Disc, War Scroll, Hymns, liturgical mss
3.Authenticity
Mss:language closer to OT than to Mishnah; script close to Nash papyrus (2nd BC)
Linenwrappings: radiocarbon date AD 30, give or take 200 yr
Pottery:late Hellenistic
Ink:matches that found in inkpots at Khirbet Qumran, where major coin finds datedc125 BC ‑ AD 68
Archeology: many ms frags found in situ at all 11caves
History:picture of sect from DSS mss very close to picture of Essenes in Philo,Josephus, Pliny the Elder
B.Description of the Writings
Hereconcerned with new finds (plus Zad frag), not OT nor prev known Apoc/Pseud
Somevariety in naming of mss causes confusion; we give common name first with somevariants in parentheses (C = Charles; G = Gaster; V = Vermes) std. abbrev for mss in brackets [ ]
1.Rules of the Sect
a.Manual of Discipline [1QS, S = Serek, rule]
(V:Community Rule)
regulationsfor entry (1‑3); two ways (3‑4); rules for members (5‑9); rules for leader (9‑10); closing hymn (10‑11)
b.Damascus Document [CD; 4QD; 6QD]
(C:Frag of Zad Work; G: Zad Doc; V: Damascus Rule)
exhortation(1‑8): incl hist of group & some strange exegesis; rules for sect(9‑16): incl interp of various Biblical regulations
c.Rule of the Congregation [1QSa]
(G:Man Disc for Fut Cong Israel; V: Messianic Rule)
rulesfor all Israel when they join sect in Messianic period
d.War of Sons of Light against Sons of Darkness [1QM]
(V:War Rule)
rulesfor 40‑year war of Israel vs Gentiles (esp Kittim) atend of age; incl detailed info on standards, trumpets, troop movements andliturgy
2."Liturgical" Materials
a.Thanksgiving Psalms [1QH]
(G:Bk of Hymns; V: Hymns)
c25hymns, all of thanksgiving, all individual; many themes: 2 most pervasive:salvation & knowledge; most are general enough to apply to any member ofgroup but ##1,2,7‑11 thought esp appropriate to Teacher of Righteousness(founder? persec by enemies, abandoned by friends)
b.Words of Heavenly Lights [4Q504]
prayers& hymns, app for each day of week
veryfragmented, 7 columns
c.Scroll of Prayers [1Q34]
(V:Liturgical Prayer)
probpart of covenant renewal liturgy (on Pentecost)
smallfrag of 2 columns
d.The Benedictions [1QSb]
(G:Formulary of Blessings; V: The Blessings)
blessingswhich Master gives to congregation, high priest (priest Messiah?), priests & prince (kingMessiah?)
e.The Book of Mysteries [1Q27]
(G:Coming Doom; V: Triumph of Righteousness)
lessthan one column, poss from sermon or apocalypse
f.Songs for the Sabbath Sacrifice [4Q400-407, 11Q5-6]
(V221-30)
TheAngelic Blessings: 7 archangels bless righteous (poss in worship service beforeGod in heaven)
TheDivine Throne‑Chariot: worship of various angelic beings before God'sthrone
3.Biblical Interpretation
a.Genesis Apocryphon [1QapGen]
(formerlyLamech Scroll)
aretelling of Gen somewhat similar to Jubilees, w/ much legendary elaboration;22 columns, but only 5 published due to poor condition; starts w/ Lamech, runsjust past Melchizedek
b.Commentary on Gen 49 [4QPBless]
(V:Blessings of Jacob)
Shilohpassage, understood as Messianic & Davidic
c.Words of Moses [1Q22]
(G:Oration of Moses)
apresentation of Moses' farewell address based on Deut but unusual in emphasis on specialteachers of law
d.Commentaries on Isaiah [4Q161-164]
severalfrags dealing with various passages
e.Prayer of Nabonidus [4QprNab]
fragconcerning thanksgiving offered by Nab after being healed by Jewish exorcist
f.Comm on Hosea [4Q166-167]
fewvv in chap 2
g.Comm on Micah [1Q14]
fewvv in chap 1
h.Comm on Nahum [4Q169]
partsof 4 columns on 2:11‑3:12
i.Comm on Habakkuk [1QpHab]
partsof 12 columns on chaps 1‑2
j.Comm on Psalms [4Q171, 173]
mostlyon Psalm 37, applied to struggle between sect & enemies, esp Teacher ofRighteousness vs Wicked Priest
k.The Florilegium [4Q174]
(V:Midrash of Last Days)
interpof passages from 2 Sam 7, Pss 1‑2 re/ coming of Messiahs & identificationof sect as Temple
l.The Testimonia [4Q175]
(V:A Messianic Anthology)
quotationsfrom Deut 18, "prophet like Moses"; Num 24, "star from Jacob";Deut 33, "blessing of Levites"; and Josh 6 "curse on builder ofJericho," w/ comm on last
m.Comm on Biblical Laws [4Q159, 513-14]
shortfrags dealing w/ gleaning and half‑shekel tax
4.Other Materials
a.The Copper Scroll [3Q15]
alarge copper scroll listing fabulous treasures hidden in variouslocations (c1300 tal gold, 3000 tal silver) imaginary? treasury of sect? templetreasury? so far locations not discoverable
b.The Temple Scroll [11QT]
largestof DSS, 28' long, 67 cols, seized by Israelis in 1967 from Arab dealerdescription of temple, starting inside & working outward, with digressionsto give relevant laws; much is straight out of OT but changed to 1st person as thoughGod speaking
descripof temple fits neither Solomon's, Ezekiel's nor Herod's temples
muchinfo on halakah different from Pharisees
C.Modern Reference Sources for Qumran Literature
notas good as for literature discussed in previous sections; see Fitzmyer (1977)in bibliography for details; see also Vermes bibliography, V313-316
1.Original Language
Nocollection with all texts; best is
Lohse,E. Die Texte aus Qumran. Muenchen: Koesel Verlag, 1964.
2.Bilingual with English
a.Bartelhemy, D. et al. Discoveriesin the Judean Desert (ofJordan). 6 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1955‑77.
(someof this is in French rather than English)
some(but not all) material from caves 1‑11 plus Murabbaat plates, Hebrewtext, translations and notes
b.Yadin, Yigael. The TempleScroll. 3 vols. Jerusalem: Israel ExplorationSociety, 1983.
introduction,text, commentary, plates
3.English Translations
a.Gaster, Theodore. The Dead SeaScriptures. rev. ed.Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964.
b.Vermes, Geza. The Dead SeaScrolls in English. 3rdrev. and aug. ed. Baltimore: Penguin, 1987.
D.Value of Qumran for N.T. Background
1.Geographical Background
thoughsect located in Pal of IT‑NT period, DSS give very little information ofthis sort
2.Cultural and Historical Background
relativelyfew clear historical references, but vivid 1st‑hand picture ofa Jewish sect of period
a.Secret Doctrines
1QS8: "interpreter shall not conceal" [from leaders?]
(V73;V = Vermes)
1QS9: "conceal teaching of Law from men of falsehood"
(V75);cp and contrast Mt 7:6; 10:27; Acts 26:26
b.Calendar
1QS1 (V62); 1QS 10 (V76); CD 6 (V87); CD 16 names Bk of Jubilees (V92); 1QH 12(V197); 4QpHos (V276); cp Col 2:16 (and recall "worship of angels" inCol 2:18)
c.Hatred of Enemies
1QS1 (V62): "love all sons of light . . . hate all sons ofdarkness"
1QS9 (V75): "everlasting hatred in a spirit of secrecy for the men ofperdition"
contrastMt 5:43
d.Sabbath Activity
CD11 (V95): can pull man out of pit, but not animal contrastMt 12:11; Lk 14:5
e.Swearing
CD15 (V91-92);
cpand contrast Mt 23:16‑22
f.Vows of Corban
CD16 (V93);
cpMk 7:11ff
g.Angels in Congregation
1QSa2 (V102): no unclean or blemished in congreg because of Angels of Holiness
1QM7 (V112): no unclean because angels with their host
cpDeut 23:14, which prob applies to vv 8‑13, not just 12‑13;
notealso 1 Cor 11:10 woman's head covered because of angels
h.No interruptions
1QS6 (V69): "no one to interrupt companion before speechended";
cp1 Cor 14:30: "let 1st keep silence"
3.Linguistic Background
exceptfor 7Q materials (poss not even Qumran), rest is in Hebrew or Aramaic, so mostlinguistic connections indirect
a.Abaddon, Abyss, Belial
1QH3 (V172): "redeemed my soul from the pit & from the Hell ofAbaddon"
1QH3 (V174): "torrents of Belial shall break into Abaddon and deeps of the Abyssshall groan"
here"Abaddon" and "Belial" are transliterations, but "Abyss"is tehom, which LXXrenders abyssos
cp"abaddon" Rev 9:11; "abyss" Lk 8:31; Rev 9:1‑3; 20:1‑3;
"Belial"2 Cor 6:15
b.Chief Priests
1QM2 (V106): 12 chief priests minister (app below H.P. and his vicar); cp usage in Gospels: e.g., Mt 26:47,59
c.Jannes
CD5 (V87): Satan raised up Jannes and his brother
cp2 Tim 3:8
4.Exegetical Background
muchmaterial here, not just confined to commentaries
a.Gen 6:2,4: sons of God, Nephilim
CD2 (V84): Heavenly Watchers, giants
b.Gen 49:10: until Shiloh comes
4QPBless(V260): messianic
c.Ps 41:9: lifted up heel against me
1QH5 (V179): applied to writer (T of R?) re/ enemies
cpJohn 13:18: applied to Jesus re/ Judas
d.Isa 11:1‑3: rod from stem of Jesse
4Q161(V268): applied to Davidic Messiah; note how interpreter handles "shall notjudge by what eyes see"
e.Isa 28:16: God laying in Zion a precious corner stone
1QS8 (V72): community is precious corner stone
cpRom 9:33; 10:11; 1 Pet 2:6
f.Isa 40:3: prepare in wilderness way of Lord
1QS8 (V73): applied to selves
cpMt 3:3; Mk 1:3; Jn 1:23
[thisis what is commonly known as "pesher" interp, i.e., applying OT prophecy tooneself or one's movement]
5.Theological Background
alsoimportant as sect very theologically‑minded
a.Holy Spirit as person
1QH7 (V184); 1QH 17 (V206)
b.Demons
1QapGen20 (V255) represents plague on Pharoah as caused by evil spirit
c.Grace: esp notable in hymn/psalm material
1QS11 (V79); 1QH 1 (V167‑68); 1QH 3 (V173); 1QH 4
(V177);1QH 7 (V185)
d.Atonement
1QS8 (V72): community atones by righteousness and suffering
e.Messiahs
1QS9 (V74): 3 figures: prophet & messiahs of Aaron & Israel
4Q175(V295‑96): 4 figures: 3 above + antagonist?
Deut18:18‑19 (prophet); Num 24:15‑17 (star from Jacob) Deut 33:8‑11(priest?); Josh 6:26 (curse on Jericho's rebuilder)
1QSb(V235‑37): blessings on faithful, priests, high priest andprince; last app messianic, hp may be also
f.Resurrection
notmuch, but 1QH 6 (V184) and 1QH 11 (V195) look like it was accepted by community
g.Hell
1QS2 (V63): torture by Avengers, destruction, shadowy place of everlasting fire
1QS4 (V66): multitude of plagues by hand of destroying angels, everlasting damnation, eternal torment,endless disgrace; shameful extinction; fire of dark regions; sorrowfulmourning, bitter misery
4Q184(V240): harlot figure (heresy?) has inheritance in everlasting fire
VI.PHILO JUDAEUS
A.Life of Philo (c 25 BC to c AD 45)
verylittle known: a few details in "Embassy to Gaius" 22, 28; "OnSpecial Laws" 3:1; and Josephus, Antiquities 18.8.1 (see also 19.5.1 and 20.5.2);survey of known info and reasonable inference in Goodenough, Intro, 1‑8.
1.Family one of richest, most influential among Alexandrian Jews: connections w/Herodian dynasty and Roman court; his (younger?) brother Alexander a highofficial in city and wealthy banker; his nephew Tiberius Julius Alexanderapostasized, became Roman general, procurator of Judea AD 46‑48.
2.Life:
Onlyevent we know of was his participation in a delegation of Alex. Jews toemperor Gaius (Caligula) in AD 40 seeking redress for antisemitic acts of Romangovernor.
Allusionsin books show strong familiarity with politics, sports, theater.
3.Training (deduced from his writings)
1stclass Greek education, app from Greek schools: in classical literature, class & contemp philosophers,rhetoric, general science
Jewishknowledge more disputed (poss just from home, synagogue and consultation):
‑‑very familiar with LXX Pentateuch (less of rest)
‑‑uses Hebrew etymologies, but prob 2nd‑hand
‑‑some knowledge of Jewish oral traditions:
*very much at home in haggadah
*not much on halakah (but reflects some views later rejected by rabbis)
B.His Writings
preservedby Christians rather than by Jews
mostlyin original Greek, tho some only in Armenian
1."Commentaries" on the Pentateuch
a.Catechetical ["Questions & Answers on the Pent."]
Q& A format
onlypartially preserved (pts of Gen & Ex) and only in Armenian
eachParagraph an exegetical question
givesshort answer re/ literal sense of passage
thenlong allegorical explanation
b.Allegorical ["Allegories on the Sacred Laws"]
17(poss 18) exegetical treatises on selected passages from 1st 17 chaps ofGenesis
historyof patriarchs seen as symbolic of religious and moral development of theindividual human soul
possa collection of sermons given by Philo in synagogue
c.Legal [no overall title]
"Onthe Creation": sometimes classed under b, above
biographiesof patriarchs, incl Joseph, Moses:
e.g.,"On Abraham," "On Joseph," "Moses"
"OnDecalogue": 10 Commandments
"OnSpecial Laws": precepts exemplifying each of 10 Commandments
"Onthe Virtues": OT laws seen as encouraging classical virtues
"OnRewards and Punishments"
2.Other Works
a.Philosophical
littleBiblical connection; poss addressed to young Jewish intellectuals on verge ofapostasy
"EveryGood Man is Free"
"Onthe Eternity of the World"
"OnProvidence"
b.Apologetic
"Hypothetica"or "Apology for the Jews"
onlya frag extant in Eusebius, Preparation Gospel 8:6‑7
c.Historical
"Onthe Contemplative Life" ‑ decribes Theraputae
"Flaccus"‑ pogroms in Alexandria (AD 38)
"Onthe Embassy to Gaius" ‑ resulting delegation (AD 40)
C.Modern Reference Sources for Philo
Finally,a (fairly) cheap edition of his works:
1.Yonge, C.D., ed. The Works ofPhilo: Complete and Unabridged. New updated ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993.
Andthe standard bilingual multi-volume edition:
2.Colson, F. H.; G. H. Whitaker and R. Marcus, eds. Philo. 12 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1929‑53.
D.Value for N.T. Background
1.Philo as a Prime Example of Hellenistic Judaism
don'tknow how characteristic, though
herefers to predecessors & contemporaries w/ similar views
a.Philosophy (eclectic, basically Stoic and Platonic)
seesMoses as source of all good in Gk phil systems
(1)Stoic Influence
borrowsmuch terminology (4 passions, 7 body‑ functions, 4 levels of material things)
lifebased on reason rather than passion
livein harmony with nature
morallybeautiful is the only good
(butPhilo opposed to Stoic materialism & independence from God)
(2)Platonic Influence
theoryof ideas: 2‑level world:
upper:rational/spiritual; ideas; allegory;
ultimatetruth
lower:material; history; literal interp;
opinion,probability
bodyas prison for soul
(3)Other Influences
(a)Pythagorean: mystical significance of numbers (Goodenough sees more here)
(b)Aristotelian: virtues as means ("nothing in excess")
(c)Sceptic: strong sense of human weakness, ignorance
b.Theology (Hebrew w/ Platonic influence)
(1)God
totallyother, incomprehensible
butalso close; mystical union possible via divine intermediaries
(2)Intermediaries
DivineReason ‑ logos
DivinePowers ‑ goodness (God); sovereignty
(Lord),mercy, justice
[greatdebate over whether these are to be consideredpersons, emanations or attributes]
(3)Man
2parts: soul (connecting w/ God)
body(connecting w/ matter)
manchooses own direction of life (uses Stoic ethics:control of passions by reason)
fallacc to Philo (LA 2:59):
Adam= reason; Eve = senses; snake = lust
A.leaves father (God) and mother (wisdom) to cleave towife (sensuality)
"salvation":soul can ascend to God, attain mystical union (virtue) by3 routes:
(a)erudition to virtue: exemplified by Abraham having children by Hagar, then Sarah
(b)perfect nature: exemplified by Isaac
(c)asceticism: exemplified by Jacob
c.Allegorical Exegesis
(1)Origin: following Stoics, whoallegorized Homer to avoid problems & discover Stoicism in Homer
(2)Two Senses of Scripture:
‑‑literal:records ancient events
‑‑allegorical:contemporary experience of everyman
(3)Method:
‑‑excludeliteral if: unworthy, senseless, contradictory,inadmissable
‑‑signsof allegory: duplication,superfluity, peculiarities, omissions
‑‑techniquesof interpretation: redivision of words, phrases; synonyms; slight changes; number symbolism
(4)Allegory & the Law
Philoallegorized law, but also felt it should be observed literally
someHellenistic Jews rejected lit. observance
(5)Influence on Christianity
considerableon Alexandrian school of exegesis
(Clement,Origen, etc.)
2.Philo's Parallels with the New Testament
generallythought due to common heritage & atmosphere rather than borrowing
a.Some Similar Ideas
similarto NT epistles re/ spirit, faith, sonship, immortality, conscience as judge(only last goes much beyond Stoics)
b.Some Overlap in OT Allegory
brazenserpent:
1:LA2.79‑81 = self‑mastery (Legum Allegoriae)
3:Agr95‑99 = stedfast endurance (Agricultura)
manna:
2:Det118 (Quod Deterius) and 5:Fug 137‑39 (Fuga) =Divine Word (logos)
Melchizedek:1:LA 3.79‑82
Melchizedek= righteous king
interpsk of Salem = king of peace
saysMelchizedek represents Reason (logos)
c.Some similar phraseology
e.g., logos, pleroma, some terms inHebrews
3.Philo on History of the Period
fewevents narrated, as Philo not historically inclined
a.Jew‑Gentile Relations: see "Flaccus" and "Embassy toGaius"
b.Essenes: see "Every Good Man is Free" and "Hypothetica"
c.Theraputae: see "On the Contemplative Life"
4.Background to Early Christian Heresies
seeSandmel, Philo, ch 12"Philo & Christianity," pp 150, 161‑2
hispreference for existential over historical similar to that in docetism andgnosticism
probsimilar reactions to intellectual climate rather than direct dependence
Excursis: Reading Philo: Goodenough'sSuggested Order
A Good Introduction to Philo (items1-13):
1. Against Flaccus
2. Embassy to Gaius
3. On the Contemplative Life
4. Hypothetica
5. Apology (on the Essenes)
Aimed at Gentiles (evangelistic):
6. Life of Moses
7. On Creation
8. On Abraham [On Isaac & On Jacoblost]
9. On Joseph
10. On the Decalogue
11. On the Special Laws
12. On Virtues
13. On Rewards and Punishments
Philo's Deeper Thought (items 14-20):
For Ordinary Jews:
14. On Blessings and Curses
For Hellenistic Jews into Allegory, etc.:
15. Allegory on the Law (series)
16. Questions and Answers (series)
17. On the Eternality of the World
18. Every Good Man is Free
19. On Providence
20. On Whether Dumb Animals Have thePower of Reason
VII.FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS
A.Life of Josephus
[fromown accounts in Lifeand War]
1.Background and Early Life
bornin Jerusalem in year of Caligula's accession (37/38 AD) to aristocratic,priestly family; mother descendant of Hasmoneans
J.app a child prodigy; claimed that Jewish leaders consulted him on law at age 14
studied3 major Jewish sects beginning at age 16, then studied under ascetic Bannus inwilderness for 3 yrs., returning at 19 to become a Pharisee
atage 26 (AD 64) sent to Rome to obtain release of priests; sent there by Felix;successful thru introduction to empress Poppaea; much impressed by power &glory of Rome
2.The Roman War
onreturn J. found country headed for revolt, but unable to restrain partisans, soreluctantly went along
afterdestruction of Roman forces under Cestius Gallus (AD 66), J. sent to Galilee ascommander to prepare defenses
motives,actions of J. attacked by several, incl. John of Gischala and Justus of Tiberias
whenVespasian invaded Galilee (67), J. besieged at Jotapata, which fell after 47days; J. escaped w/ group to hide in cave; J. & another survived suicidepact to surrender
takenbefore Vespasian, J. predicted V. would become emperor; J. preserved alive tosee if so, given freedom in 69 when prediction fulfilled
aidedRomans as mediator & interpreter thru fall of Jerusalem (AD 70)
3.Later Life
settledin Rome, w/ Roman citizenship; lived in Vespasian's old palace as a client ofV. & Titus
hatedby Jews who tried to harm him on many occasions
turnedto writing, becoming quite famous
familylife not too good:
4marriages: 1st wife died in siege; 2nd left him (a captive married at advice of Vespasian); 3rd divorced him
3sons survived to maturity
diedsometime after AD 100; statue erected in Rome, books placed in public library(see Eusebius HE 3.9)
B.His Writings
1.The Jewish War
publishedabout 80
probdone at request of Vespasian (& Herod Agrippa 2?) to hold empire together
originallydone in Aramaic, but this no longer extant
(someclaim Slavonic version retains some original materials)
extantversion is revision or new edition in Greek supervised by author
contents:7 books
1:rapid survey of Jewish history in Hellenistic‑Roman period
(Nicholasof Damascus a main source)
2‑6:revolt against Rome to destruction of Jerusalem
7:final mopping up and aftermath
(mainsources of 2‑7 are Js own experiences, reports from refugees, records of Romancommanders)
2.Jewish Antiquities
publishedabout 93‑94
forcultivated Gk‑Rom pagans, to show Jewish achievements and antiquity ofrace
contents:20 books, modeled on Dionysius' Roman Antiquities:
1‑10:creation to Babylonian captivity (digest of LXX, supplemented by homiletic,haggadic materials)
11‑20:return from Bab to outbreak of Roman war
(sources:Bible, apocrypha, haggadic traditions, handbooks of Gkhistorians, Nicholas of Damascus, Strabo, Roman historians)
comparisonw/ War in overlappingmaterials:
Ant usually more complete, less favorable toRome
3.Life
appendixto Ant, publishedeither 93/94 or as part of 2nd ed. sometime before 100
responseto attacks by rival historian Justus of Tiberius (secretary to H. Agrippa 2)who claimed J. belonged to war party
onlycovers about 6 months, when J. commander in Galilee
4.Against Apion
publishedafter death of Herod Agrippa (AD 100)
eloquentapology for Judaism against attacks of various anti‑Semites
contents:2 books
1:answering anti‑Semites, contains lenghthy extracts (esp. from Egyptianpriest Manetho) of works no longer extant
2:positive response: ethical superiority of Judaism to Hellenism
5.Other Works
someplanned, but app never done, e.g., discussion of OT laws
otherworks sometimes ascribed to J. that are now thought to be spurious
C.Modern Reference Sources for Josephus
1.Bilingual
Thackeray,H. St. John; R. Marcus; W. Wikgren; and L. H. Feldman, eds. Josephus. 9 vols. Loeb ClassicalLibrary. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1926‑65.
2.English Translations
Josephus,Flavius. Complete Works. 4 vol. hb, Grand Rapids: Baker, n.d.
Whiston,William, trans. Josephus: CompleteWorks. Grand Rapids:Kregel, 1960 reprint of 1867.
Maier,Paul L., ed. Josephus: TheEssential Writings. New translation and condensation of Antiquities and War.
D.Value for N.T. Background
[forconvenience, I give pagination in Kregel ed.]
1.O.T. Interpretation of Period
a.General Characteristics
probmore Palestinian than Alexandrian
morehaggadah than halakah (in contrast to rabbis)
morepopular than exegetical
mostoccurs in use of OT narrative in Antiquities
b.Specific Characteristics
retellingBible stories for cultured Greco‑Romans
goodguys tend to be idealized, bad guys worse:
Abraham(32); David (133,156); old prophet (184‑5)
somematerials omitted:
speckledrods (42), circumcision (44), Joseph's cup (51), killing Egyptian (58), goldencalf (71), rebellion of Aaron & Miriam (89), Moses' death (105)
someadded:
Moses(57), Moses' "death" (103), Hadad (153),
Moriah(167), Bronze sea (175)
explanationsadded:
Nabal(141), witch (144), Jehoshaphat (194),
Zedekiah(195)
expandedspeeches:
Abrahamto Isaac (37), Moses (66), God! (133)
namessupplied:
Jadon(184), Michaiah (193‑4), Naaman (195)
2.History of Intertestament period
onlyextant ancient works covering entire period are J's Antiquities and War (latter mainly from 168 BC)
thoughnot first‑hand (J born AD 37), contain materials from sources no longerextant (plus 1 Macc, Aristeas, etc.)
3.Palestine in New Testament Period
a.Events: both War and Ant cover period, former to AD 73, latter toAD 66
b.Groups: describes Pharisees, Sadducees (e.g., 274, 377, 478), Essenes, Zealots,etc.
c.Individuals: mentions Herods (e.g., death of HA1, 412‑13), Pilate (379),John the Baptist (382), Jesus (379), James his brother (423), Ananus (423),Jos. Caiaphas (377‑8, 381), Herodias (383), Salome (383), Bernice (485)
d.Places: Jerusalem, temple (335‑6), Caesarea, Galilee, Jericho, etc.
4.Illustrations of N.T. Usage
a.Historical Preface: Ant(23‑4), War(427‑9);
cpLuke 1:1‑4; Acts 1:1
b.Anticipatory Summary: Ant 2.16.6 (65);
cpLuke 24:51
c.Divorce laws: Ant 4.8.23 (99);
cpMatt 19
d.Priestly dress: Ant 3.7.2 (73);
cpRev 1:13
e.Large sums of money: cp Matt 18:24
Ptolemy'staxes on Judea, Samaria, Phoenicia, Coele‑Syria were 8 to 16 thousandtalents, app per year (253)
Archelaus'yearly tax receipts 600 talents (374)
f.Archelaus goes to Rome to receive kingdom & return (367, 372‑3);
cpLuke 19:11‑27 (parallel in War, 471,474)
g.Slain with their sacrifices
hereby Archelaus (471);
cpLuke 13:1
h.When Jerusalem surrounded, then flee (Luke 21:20‑21)
Jerusalemsurrounded, then army withdrew (495‑7)
i.Shaving head 30 days before vow offering
Bernice'svow (485); cp Acts 18:18,22
j.Shipwreck, size of ship
Josephus'own experience (2);
cpActs 27 (esp v 37) and 2 Cor 11:25
k.Intention a sin? (262);
cpMatt 5;28; Rom 7:7
l.Exorcism (173);
cpActs 19:13‑19
VIII.TALMUD AND MIDRASH
A.The Writings
oraltradition of the Phraisees and their successors written down
1.Definitions
a.Material categorized by content
(1)halakah ‑ "walk" ‑ rules of conduct, legalpronouncments
(2)haggada ‑ "talk, meditation" ‑ non‑legalmaterial:
theology,exhortation, illustration, edification
NOTE:these two categories are not names of works or even typesof works, but are genres like "poetry" or "prose" of typesof material within a work
b.Material categorized by structure
(1)textual (midrash)‑ organized by Scriptural passage;
allworks with "midrash" in title, also Pesikta, Tanhuma
(2)topical (no Heb term for whole) ‑ by subject rather than Scripturalpassage: Mishna, Tosefta and Talmud are all topical
2.The Topically Organized Materials
a.The Mishnah ‑ "repetition, oral lore"
topicalorganization of oral traditions completed by R. Judah the Prince (Rabbi) c AD200, tho begun by R. Meir (c150), R. Akiba (c125) or poss earlier
consistsof six orders containing 63 tractates
availin English separately (ed. Danby) or as part of Babylonian Talmud (ed.Epstein)
b.The Tosefta ‑ "addition, supplement"
materialfrom same period as Mishnah w/ same organization (6orders, lacks 4 of the tractates)
probthe work of R. Hiyya bar Abba, student of Rabbi
apporal materials not incorporated into Mishnah
justrecently ('86) avail in English
NOTE:rabbis whose teachings appear in Mishnah or Tosefta are called Tannaim ‑ "teachers"; so periodbefore AD 200 called tannaiticperiod
c.The Talmuds ‑ "instruction"
compilationsby rabbis of Mishnah plus later discussion
discussioncalled Gemara ‑"completion"
Talmud= Mishnah + Gemara
(1)Palestinian (Jerusalem) Talmud
compiledabout AD 400 in Palestine, consisting of Mishnah plusGemara by Palestinian rabbis, following organizational scheme of Mishnah
onlyabout 1/3 length of Babylonian Talmud (below)
notconsidered authoritative in later Judaism
morevaluable for NT background as earlier & Palestinian
mostof 2 orders missing & work is mostly halakah
nocomplete English ed. yet (Neusner in process)
(2)Babylonian Talmud
compiledabout AD 550 in Mesopotamia, Mishnah w/ Gemara of Babylonian rabbis
authoritativesource of teaching and practice for later orthodox Judaism
35vol. ed. in English (Soncino ed. by Epstein) has extensive indices
NOTE:teachers from post‑Mishnah period cited in Talmuds are called Amoraim‑ "speakers"; period AD 200‑550 called amoraic period
CONTENTS OF MISHNAH/TALMUD/TOSEFTA
[acc to Strack, Intro to Talmud &Midrash]
FirstOrder: Zera'im ‑ "seeds"
11tractates; mainly agriculture
1.Berakoth ‑ "benedictions" ‑ and prayers
2.Pe'a ‑ "corner" ‑ duties to poor
3.Demai ‑ "dubious" ‑ fruits on which one uncertain whethertithe paid yet
4.Kil'aim ‑ "diverse seeds" ‑ unlawful mingling
5.Shabi'ith ‑ "seventh year" ‑ rest for land & releaseof debts 6. Terumoth ‑ "heave offerings"
7.Maasroth [Maaser Rishon] ‑ "tithes" ["first tithe"]
8.Maaser Sheni ‑ "second tithe"
9.Halla ‑ "heave for dough"
10.Orla ‑ "uncircumcision (of trees)"
11.Bikkurim ‑ "first fruits"
SecondOrder: Mo'ed ‑ "festivals"
12tractates
1.Shabbath ‑ "sabbath"
2.Erubim ‑ "blendings" ‑ expedients for circumventing moreirksome sabbath regulations
3.Pesahim ‑ "paschal lambs" ‑ passover
4.Shekalim ‑ "shekels" ‑ 1/2 shekel temple tax
5.Yoma ‑ "day (of atonement)" ‑ details on scapegoat
6.Sukka ‑ "booth" ‑ feast of tabernacles
7.Besa ‑ "egg" ‑ activities permitted on festivals
8.Rosh Ha‑shana ‑ "new year"
9.Taanith ‑ "fasting"
10.Megilla ‑ "the scroll (of Esther)" ‑ Purim
11. Moed Katan ‑ "littlefeast" ‑ days within week‑long festivals 12. Hagiga ‑"festival offering"‑ observances during 3 pilgrim feasts
ThirdOrder: Nashim ‑ "women"
7tractates
1.Yebamoth ‑ "sisters in law" ‑ levirate marriage
2.Kethubboth ‑ "marriage contract"
3.Nedarim ‑ "vows" ‑ not just relevant to women
4.Nazir ‑ "Nazirite"
5.Gittin ‑ "writs of divorce"
6.Sota ‑ "woman suspected of adultery"
7.Kiddushin ‑ "marrying"
FourthOrder: Nezikin ‑ "damages"
10tractates; mainly criminal & civil law
1.Baba Kamma ‑ "first gate" ‑ damages, theft, robbery,mayhem
2.Baba Mesi'a ‑ middle gate" ‑ personal property, trade, lease
3.Baba Bathra ‑ "last gate" ‑ real estate, inheritance
4.Sanhedrin ‑ judicial procedure, esp. criminal
5.Makkoth ‑ "lashes" ‑ punishment by scourging
6.Shebuoth ‑ "oaths"
7.Eduyyoth ‑ "testimonies" ‑ differences between disciplesof Hillel and Shammai
8.Aboda Zara ‑ "idolatry"
9.Aboth ‑ "fathers" ‑ sayings of earliest fathers
10.Horayoth ‑ "decisions" ‑ erroneous halakah
FifthOrder: Kodashim ‑ "holy things"
11tractates
1.Zebahim ‑ "animal offerings"
2.Menahoth ‑ "meal offerings"
3.Hullin ‑ "things profane" ‑ slaying animals not forsacrifice 4. Bekoroth ‑ "firstborn"
5.Arakim ‑ "estimations" ‑ monetary valuation of vows
6.Temura ‑ "changing" ‑ substitution of sacrificial animals
7.Kerithoth ‑ "cuttings off" ‑ from congregation
8.Me'ila ‑ "trespassing"
9.Tamid ‑ "daily (offering)"
10.Middoth ‑ "measures" ‑ measures, etc. of temple &sanctuary
11.Kinnim ‑ "bird nests" ‑ bird offerings
SixthOrder: Toharoth ‑ "purities"
12tractates
1.Kelim ‑ "vessels" ‑ impurities re/ vessels
2.Ohaloth ‑ "tents" ‑ impurity spread by corpse
3.Nega'im ‑ "leprosy"
4.Para ‑ "red heifer"
5.Toharoth ‑ "purities" ‑ minor defilements
6.Mikvaoth ‑ "baptisms"
7.Nidda ‑ "(woman's) impurity"
8.Makshirin ‑ "what predisposes" ‑ to impurity
9.Zabim ‑ "those w/ unclean issue"
10.Tebel yom ‑ "immersed that day"
11.Yadaim ‑ "hands"
3.The Textually Organized Materials
a.The Tannaitic Midrashim
midrashicmaterials from the pre‑Mishnah period
(1)Mekilta (Exodus) ‑ "measure, form, [exegtical] rule"
fromschool of R. Ishmael, prob c AD 200
legalmaterial & haggada from Ex 12:1‑23:19
BiblicalSeminary library has Eng. translation
(2)Siphra (Leviticus) ‑ "the book"
fromschool of R. Akiba, complier Hiyya, c AD 225
nameprob due to fact students started study of Scripture withLeviticus
almostall halakah
(3)Siphre on Numbers ‑ "the books"
fromschool of Ishmael
Numbersch 5 on, mostly halakah
(4)Siphre on Deuteronomy
firstpart from school of Ishmael, mostly haggada
latterpart (Dt 12‑26) from school of Akiba, mostly halakah
b.The Homiletic and Expositional Midrashim
justa few of many
(1)Pesikta de Rab Kahana
olderthan Bab. Talmud, younger than Mishnah, c 500?
homileticexposition on Scripture selections read at festivals andcertain special sabbaths
mainemphasis on clever introduction (proem) to passage to be read publically, with exposition of only a fewverses
muchhaggada, many parables
(2)Tanhuma
homileticmidrash on whole Pentateuch, now extant only in later collections (e.g., YalkutShimoni)
probmedieval (775‑900), but contents incl older stuff
onehomily per sabbath lection:
halakicbeginning, several proems, expositions of 1st verses of Pentateuchselection, messianic conclusion
(3)Midrash Rabba
collectionof midrashim of varying dates and types on Pentateuchand five megilloth (Ruth, Esther, Eccl, Song, Lam)
oldestare Gen R, Lev R, Lam R (400‑500), then Ruth R and Song R (500‑640)
latestis Est R (1000‑1100)
wholeavail in Engl from Soncino (BTS library)
(4)Midrash on Psalms
compositionrunning over 8‑13th centuries
haggadic
BTSlibrary has Engl translation
4.Other Writings
a.Megillat Ta'anit ‑ "scroll of fasting" (see Zeitlin)
brieflisting of 36 days on which fasting prohibited due to good events in Jewishhistory of 2nd temple period
Aramaic,very brief, prob from around AD 70
contents:
2dates from before Hasmonean period
mostdates from Hasmonean and Roman periods, incl
removalof "emblems" from Temple court (Pontius Pilate; IXa)
rescindingof Gaius' edict on image in Temple (AD 41; XIb)
someobscure incidents in contest between Pharisees & Sadducees
poss2 dates from time of Trajan and Hadrian (XIIh?)
textin Hebrew Union College Annual,vols 8‑9; ET in Zeitlin, Rise & Fall of the Judean State, vol 2, 363‑65.
B.Modern Reference Sources for Rabbinic Literature
(originallanguage sources not readily available)
1.Mishnah
HerbertDanby, ed. The Mishnah: Translated from the Hebrew with Brief ExplanatoryNotes. Oxford: University Press, 1933.
32pp intro, extensive index and glossary of untranslated terms.
2.Tosefta
JacobNeusner, ed. The Tosefta.6 vols. New York: Ktav, 1977‑86.
3.The Talmuds
IsidoreEpstein, ed. The BabylonianTalmud. 35 vols. London:Soncino, 1935‑52. One vol isindex.
JacobNeusner, ed. The Talmud of theLand of Israel. 35 volsplanned. Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1982‑.
4.The Midrashim
J.Z.Lauterbach, ed. Mekilta de‑RabbiIshmael. 3 vols.Philadelphia: Jewish Publ. Soc., 1961.
H.Freedman and M. Simon, eds. The Midrash Rabbah. 5 vols. London: Soncino, 1977.
WilliamG. Braude, ed. The Midrash on the Psalms. 2 vols. New Haven: Yale, 1959.
WilliamG. Braude and I.J. Kapstein, eds. Pesiktade‑Rab Kahana. Philadelphia: Jewish Publ. Soc., 1975.
C.Value of Talmud & Midrash for N.T. Background
1.Geographic
Numerousplace names, forming important part of data on Biblical geography; see M. Avi‑Yonah,The Holy Land (Baker,1977), where Mishnah, Tosefta and Talmuds frequently show up in footnotes
2.Linguistic
Greekapparently widely used by rabbis in 1st century
e.g.,BT, B.K. 83a, attrib to R. Simeon b. Gamaliel: "the 1000 youths who werein my father's house: 500 of them learned Torah and the other 500 learnedGrecian wisdom"
alsonumerous words of Greek derivation in Rabbinic lit.
3.Cultural
[A= Auerbach, Selections from Talmud]
a.Oral Tradition
twoTorahs: BT, Shab 31a (A71)
transmissionoral law: M, Aboth 1.1‑12, 2.8 (A23‑25,28)
traditionvs. Torah: BT, Sanh 88b (A255); Mak 22b (A268);
cpMark 7:8‑9
b.Sabbath Observance
39prohibited labors: BT, Shab 73a (A76‑77)
cpMark 2:23‑24
c.Genealogies
BT,Pes 62b: "R. Simlai came before R. Jochanan and requested him, Letthe master teach me the Book of Genealogies..."; "Rami, son of RabJudah said, Since the day that the Book of Genealogies was hidden, the strengthof the Sages has been impaired and the light of their eyes has beendimmed. Mar Zutra said, BetweenAzel (1 Chr 8:38) and Azel (1 Chr 9:44) they were laden with 400 camels ofexegetical interpretations"
cp1 Tim 1:4
Biblicalgenealogy truncated for mnemonic purpose:
Pde R.K. 5.12 (114); cp Matt 1:1‑17, w/ truncated genealogy(dropping Ahaziah, Joash, Amaziah between Joram and Uzziah, v 8; Jehoiakimafter Josiah), poss based on consonants of David (3 letters with numericalvalue 14)
d.Taxation
contrastRoman and Biblical, P de R.K. 2.2 (23)
cpMatt 22:15‑22 (Roman) and Matt 17:24‑27 (Biblical)
4.Historical
a.Jesus, etc.
seeR. T. Hereford, Christianity in Talmud and Midrash;
J.Klausner, Jesus of Nazareth;
F.F. Bruce, Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the N.T.
b.Hillel, Shammai
contrast:BT, Shab 31a (A71)
Hillel'spatience: BT, Shab 30b‑31a (A70)
c.Bath Qol (Òdaughter of a voice,Ó i.e., a voice from heaven)
BT,Sanh 11a
cpvarious NT passages re/ Jesus' baptism, transfiguration, in temple (Jn 12:28)
d.Calendar
intercalationof day in month: M, R.H. 2.5‑7; BT, R.H. 23b
intercalationof month in year: BT, Sanh 11a
e.The "Council" of Jamnia
seemy article in Westminster Theological Journal 38 (1976) 319‑49; reprinted as IBRIResearch Report #13
5.Exegetical
a.Hermeneutics of Rabbis
seeH. Strack, Intro to Talmud and Midrash, 93ff;
R.Longenecker, Bibl Exegesis of the Apostolic Period
b.Parables
enormousnumber in Rabbinic lit
MacArthurand Johnston, They Also Taught in Parables find 325 from Tanaitic period, c 1500 later
c.Messianic Exegesis
seeappendix IX in Edersheim, Life & Times of Jesus the Messiah for OT passages applied to Messiah byRabbis, plus Rabbinic discussion of Messiah
d.God's Commandments to Gentiles
7commandments to Noah: BT, Sanh 56a‑b (cp Acts 15:19‑21,29):"Our Rabbis taught: Seven precepts were the sons of Noah commanded: sociallaws, to refrain from blasphemy, idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery andeating flesh cut from a living animal."
seeLichtenstein, The Seven Laws of Noah
6.Theological
a.Resurrection
prooffrom Scripture: BT, Sanh 90b (A256)
argumentw/ Sadducees: BT, Sanh 90b (A257)
cpMatt 22:23‑33
cpw/ grain of wheat: BT, Sanh 90b (A258)
cpJohn 12:24; 1 Cor 15:37
b.Circumcision
Greatness:BT, Ned 31b: "R. Jose said, Circumcision is a great precept, for itoverrides the Sabbath. R. Joshuab. Karha said, Great is circumcision, for which Moses did not have [his punishment]suspended even for a single hour... Rabbi said, Great is circumcision, fornotwithstanding all the precepts which Abraham fulfilled, he was not designatedperfect until he circumcised himself, as it is written, Walk before me and bethou perfect."
Savesfrom hell: Gen R 48: "In the world to come Abraham sits at the gate ofGehenna, permitting none to enter who bears the seal of circumcision."
c.Salvation by Works
(seediscussion in Herford, Pharisees,section on merit)
"[Hillel]used to say, an uncultured person is not sin‑fearing, neither is anignorant person pious." M, Aboth 2.5
"R.Meir said: Whoever occupieshimself with the Torah for its own sake, acquires by merit many things, naymore, the whole of the world is worthwhile for his sake." M, Aboth 6.1
"Greatis the Torah, for it gives life unto those who practice it, in this world andthe world to come." M, Aboth 6.7
Simeonb. Yohai: "I have seen the children of the world to come and they arefew. If there are three, I and my sonare of their number; if there are two, I and my son are they" JT, Ber 13d
cpGen R 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHIES:
Hurd, John C. A Bibliography of New Testament Bibliographies. Greenwich, CT: Seabury, 1966.
Harrington, Daniel J. The New Testament: A Bibliography. Wilmington, DE: MichaelGlazier, 1985.
Scholer, DavidM. A Basic Bibliographic Guidefor N.T. Exegesis. 2nded. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973.
Marcus,Ralph. A Selected Bibliography (1920‑1945)of the Jews in the Hellenistic‑Roman Period. New York: American Academyfor Jewish Research, 1947.
Berlin,Charles. Index to Festschriftenin Jewish Studies.Cambridge, MA: Harvard CollegeLibrary; New York: Ktav, 1971.
ENCYCLOPEDIAS:
Roth, Cecil, ed. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 16 vols. New York:Macmillan, 1972.
Singer, Isidore, ed. The Jewish Encyclopedia. 12 vols. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1901.
Hastings, James, ed. Dictionary of the Bible. 5 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark; New York: CharlesScribner's Sons, 1898‑1904.
________, ed. Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark; New York: CharlesScribner's Sons, 1906‑08.
________, ed. Dictionary of the Apostolic Church. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. &T. Clark; New York: CharlesScribner's Sons, 1915‑18.
Orr, James,ed. The International StandardBible Encyclopedia. Rev.ed. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1939.
Buttrick, GeorgeA., ed. The Interpreter'sDictionary of the Bible. 5 vols. with supplement. Nashville: Abingdon, 1962, 1976.
Tenney,Merrill C., ed. The ZondervanPictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975.
Bromiley, GeoffreyW., ed. The InternationalStandard Bible Encyclopedia. Fully rev. ed. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979‑85.
Green, Joel B.;Scot McKnight and I. Howard Marshall. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsityPress, 1992.
GENERAL STUDIES:
Bartlett, JohnR. Jews in the HellenisticWorld: Josephus, Aristeas, the Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemus. Cambridge Commentaries on the Writings of the Jewish and ChristianWorld 200 BC to AD 200. Vol 1, Part 1. Cambridge: CambridgeUniv. Press, 1985.
Bonsirven,Joseph. Palestinian Judaism inthe Time of Jesus Christ. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1964.
Bruce, F. F. Israel and the Nations. GrandRapids: Eerdmans, 1963.
Doeve, J. W. Jewish Hermeneutics in the SynopticGospels and Acts. Assen: Van Gorcum, 1954.
Edersheim,Alfred. The Life and Times ofJesus the Messiah. 3rd ed. 2 vols. 1886;reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1967.
Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1987.
Foerster, Werner. From the Exile to Christ. Philadelphia: Fortress,1964.
Gowan, Donald E. Bridge Between the Testaments. Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1976.
Grant, Frederick C. Ancient Judaism and the NewTestament. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1960.
Holladay, CarlR. Fragments from HellenisticJewish Authors. Vol 1: Historians. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983.
Jagersma,Henk. A History of Israel fromAlexander the Great to Bar Kochba. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986.
Kee, HowardClark. The New Testamentin Context: Sources and Documents. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‑Hall, 1984.
Lohse, Eduard. The New Testament Environment. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976.
Nickelsburg, G. W.E. Jewish Literature Betweenthe Bible and the Mishnah: AHistorical & Literary Introduction. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981.
Patte,Daniel. Early JewishHermeneutic in Palestine. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975.
Reicke, Bo. The New Testament Era. Philadelphia: Fortress,1968.
Safrai, S. andStern, M. The Jewish People inthe First Century. In Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum adNovum Testamentum. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974‑76.
Tcherikover,Victor. HellenisticCivilization and the Jews.1959; reprint, New York: Atheneum,1974.
Vermes, G. Scripture and Tradition in Judaism: Haggadic Studies. Leiden: Brill, 1973.
Wacholder, BenZion. Eupolemus: A Study ofJudaeo‑Greek Literature. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 1974.
TARGUMS:
Aberbach, M. and Grossfeld, B. Targum Onkelos to Genesis. New York: Ktav, 1982.
Bowker, John W. The Targums and Rabbinic Literature. Cambridge: University Press, 1969.
Chilton, B. D. "Targums," in Dict. of Jesus and the Gospels (1992).
Diez‑Macho,A., ed. Neophyti 1. Targum Palestinense. Madrid: ConsejoSuperior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1968‑.
Epstein, Baruch,ed. Torah Temimah. [in Hebrew] 5 vols. New York: Hebrew Publishing Co., 1928.
Etheridge, J.W., ed. The Targums of Onkelos and of Jonathan ben Uzziel on the Pentateuchwith the Fragments of the Jerusalem Targum. 2 vols. 1862‑65; reprint (2 vols. in 1),New York: Ktav, 1968.
Forestell, J.Terrence. Targumic Traditionsand the New Testament: An Annotated Bibliography. Chico, CA: Scholar's Press, 1979.
Grossfeld,Bernard. A Bibliography ofTargum Literature. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1972-77.
Kasowski, C.J. A Concordance to the Targumof Onkelos. [inHebrew]. 2 vols. Jerusalem: n.p., 1940.
LeDeaut,Roger. The Message of the NewTestament and the Aramaic Bible (Targum). Rome:Biblical Institute Press, 1982.
Levey, SamsonH. The Messiah: An Aramaic Interpretation: The Messianic Exegesis of the Targum. Cincinnati: Hebrew UnionCollege ‑ Jewish Institute of Religion, 1974.
McNamara,Martin. The New Testament andthe Palestinian Targum to the Pentateuch. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1966.
________. Targum and Testament. GrandRapids: Eerdmans, 1972.
Nickels,Peter. Targum and NewTestament: A Bibliography Togetherwith a New Testament Index. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1967.
Sperber, Alexander,ed. The Bible in Aramaic. 4 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1959‑73.
SEPTUAGINT:
Brock, S. P.;Fritsch, C. T.; and Jellicoe, S. A Classified Bibliography of the Septuagint. Leiden: Brill, 1973.
Brooke, A. E.;McLean, N.; and Thackeray, H. St. J., eds. The Old Testament in Greek. 9 vols. [incomplete]. Cambridge: University Press, 1906‑40.
Brown, Colin, ed. The New International Dictionary ofNew Testament Theology. 3 vols. Exeter: Paternoster, 1975‑78.
Conybeare, F. C.and St. George Stock. A Grammarof Septuagint Greek. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,1980 reprint of 1905.
Dodd, Charles H. The Bible and the Greeks. London: Hodder and Stoughton,1954.
GoettingenLiterary Society, ed. Septuaginta. Multivolume. Goettingen: Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht, 1931‑.
Hatch, E. andRedpath, H., eds. A Concordanceto the Septuagint and the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament. 3 vols. 1897‑1906; reprint (3 vols. in 2), Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck, 1954.
Jellicoe,S. The Septuagint and ModernStudy. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968.
________. Studies in the Septuagint. New York: Ktav, 1974.
Kittel, G. andFriedrich, G., eds. TheologicalDictionary of the New Testament. 10 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964‑76.
Liddell, H. G. and Scott, R., eds. A Greek‑English Lexicon. 9th ed.Oxford: Clarendon, 1940.
Morrish, George,ed. A Concordance of theSeptuagint. 1887;reprint, Grand Rapids: Zondervan,1976.
Rahlfs, A., ed. Septuaginta. 8th ed. 2 vols. Stuttgart: WuerttembergischeBibelanstalt, 1965.
Swete, H. B. An Introduction to the Old Testamentin Greek. Rev. ed., 1914; reprint, New York: Ktav, 1968.
APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHA:
Charles, R.H., ed. The Apocrypha andPseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913.
Charlesworth, J.H., ed. The Old TestamentPseudepigrapha. 2 vols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983‑85.
________. The Pseudepigrapha & Modern Research. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1981.
Eissfeldt,Otto. The Old Testament: An Introduction. New York: Harper & Row,1965.
Ginzberg, Louis. The Legends of the Jews. 7 vols. Philadelphia: Jewish Publ. Soc., 1937.
Grudem,Wayne. "AlphabeticalReference List for O.T. Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha," Journal of theEvangelical Theological Society19 (1976) 297‑313.
Kraft, Robert A.,ed. Society of BiblicalLiterature. Texts &Translations. PseudepigraphaSeries. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1972‑.
Metzger, BruceM. An Introduction to theApocrypha. New York: Oxford, 1957.
Milik, J. T. The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.
Morris, Leon. Apocalyptic. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972.
Oesterley, W. O.E. and Box, G. H., eds. Translationsof Early Documents. 1st Series: Palestinian‑Jewish & Cognate Texts (Pre‑Rabbinic); 2nd Series: Hellenistic‑Jewish Texts. London: SPCK, 1916‑20.
Pfeiffer, RobertH. A History of New TestamentTimes with an Introduction to the Apocrypha. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1949.
Russell, D.S. The Method and Message ofJewish Apocalyptic. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964.
Sandmel, Samuel. Judaism and Christian Beginnings. New York: Oxford, 1978.
Torrey, C.C. The ApocryphalLiterature: A Brief Introduction. New Haven: Yale, 1945.
QUMRAN:
Brownlee, W. H. The Midrash Pesher ofHabakkuk. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979.
Burrows, Millar. The Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Viking, 1955.
________. More Light on the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Viking, 1958.
Cross, Frank M.,Jr. The Ancient Library ofQumran and Modern Biblical Studies. 2nd ed. Garden City: Doubleday, 1961.
Fitzmyer,Joseph A. The Dead SeaScrolls; Major Publications &Tools for Study. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977.
________. TheGenesis Apocryphon of Qumran Cave 1: A Commentary. Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1971.
Gaster, T. H., ed. The Dead Sea Scriptures. Rev. ed. Garden City: Doubleday, 1964.
Horgan, MauryaP. Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of BiblicalBooks. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Assoc., 1979.
Jongeling, B. A Classified Bibliography of theFinds in the Desert of Judah 1958‑69. Leiden: Brill, 1971.
Jordan Dept. ofAntiquities, Ecole Biblique et Archeologique Francaise, and PalestineArcheological Museum. Discoveriesin the Judean Desert. Oxford: Clarendon, 1955‑.
LaSor, WilliamS. The Dead Sea Scrolls and theNew Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972.
Van der Ploeg, J., ed. Studies on the Texts of the Desertof Judah. Leiden: Brill, 1957‑.
Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Penguin, 1968.
Wise, M. O. "Dead Sea Scrolls," in Dict. of Jesus & theGospels (1992).
PHILO:
Belkin, S. Philo and the Oral Law. Cambridge,MA: Harvard, 1940.
Bigg, Charles. The Christian Platonists ofAlexandria. Oxford: Clarendon, 1886.
Borgen, PederJ. Bread from Heaven: An Exegetical Study of the Concept ofManna in the Gospel of John and the Writings of Philo. Leiden: Brill, 1965.
Colson, F. H.;Whitaker, G. H.; and Marcus, R., eds. Philo. 12 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1929‑53.
Feldman, L.H. Scholarship on Philo andJosephus, 1937‑62. New York: Yeshiva, 1963.
Goodenough, E. R. An Introduction to Philo Judaeus. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1962.
________. The Politics of Philo Judaeus. New Haven: Yale, 1938.
James, M. R.,ed. The Biblical Antiquities of[Pseudo] Philo. 1917; reprint, New York: Ktav, 1971.
Sandmel, Samuel. Philo of Alexandria. New York: Oxford, 1979.
Williamson, Ronald. Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews. Leiden: Brill, 1970.
Wolfson, HarryA. Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy inJudaism, Christianity and Islam. 2 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1940.
JOSEPHUS:
Bentwich, N. Josephus. Philadelphia: Jewish Publ.Soc., 1914.
Bernstein,Leon. Flavius Josephus, HisTime & His Critics. New York: Liveright, 1938.
Farmer, W. R. Maccabees, Zealots and Josephus. New York: Columbia, 1956.
Foakes‑Jackson,F J. Josephus and the Jews. New York: Harper, 1930.
Franxman, T.W. Genesis and the "JewishAntiquities" of Flavius Josephus. Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1979.
Rajak, Tessa. Josephus: The Historian & His Society. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.
Scott, J. J. "Josephus," in Dict. of Jesus & the Gospels (1992).
Shutt, R. J. H. Studies in Josephus. London: SPCK, 1961.
Thackeray, H. St.John. Josephus, the Man and theHistorian. New York: Ktav, 1967 reprint of 1929 ed., with new introductionby Samuel Sandmel.
Thackeray, H. St.J.; Marcus, R.; Wikgren, A.; and Feldman, L. H., eds. Josephus. 9 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1926‑65.
Whiston,William, ed. Josephus: Complete Works. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1960.
Williamson, G. A. The World of Josephus. London: Secker &Warburg, 1964.
TALMUD AND MIDRASH:
Berlin, Meyer. Encyclopedia Talmudica. Jerusalem: TalmudicEncyclopedia Institute, 1969‑.
Braude,William G., ed. The Midrash onthe Psalms. 2 vols. New Haven: Yale, 1959.
________ andKapstein, I. J., eds. Pesiktade‑Rab Kahana. Philadelphia: Jewish Publ. Soc., 1975.
Chilton, B. D. "Rabbinic Traditions and Writings," in Dict. ofJesus & the Gospels(1992).
Cohen, A. Everyman's Talmud. NewYork: Dutton, 1949.
Dalman, GustafH. Jesus Christ in the Talmud,Midrash, Zohar and the Liturgy of the Synagogue. New York: Arno Press, 1973.
Danby, H., ed. The Mishnah. Oxford: University Press, 1933.
Edersheim,Alfred. The Life and Times ofthe Jesus the Messiah. 2 vols. 1899; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967.
Epstein, I.,ed. The Babylonian Talmud. 35 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1935‑52.
Freedman, H.; Simon, M., eds, The Midrash Rabbah. 5 vols. London: Soncino, 1977.
Goldin, Judah,ed. The Fathers According toRabbi Nathan. Yale Judaica Series, vol X. New Haven: Yale Univ, 1955.
Herford, R. T. Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. 1903; reprint, New York: Ktav, 1975.
________. The Ethics of the Talmud: TheSayings of the Fathers. Reprint, New York: Schocken, 1962.
Johnston, R. M., ParabolicInterpretations Attributed to Tannaim. PhD Dissertation, Hartford SeminaryFoundation, 1977; reprint, 1990,University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI.
Lauterbach, J. Z., ed. Mekilta de‑Rabbi Ishmael. 3 vols. Philadelphia: Jewish Publ. Soc., 1961.
Levertoff, Paul P., ed. Midrash Sifre on Numbers: Selections. London: SPCK, 1926.
Lichtenstein,Aaron. The Seven Laws ofNoah. 2nd ed. New York: Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press, 1981.
Lightfoot,John. A Commentary on the N.T.From the Talmud & Hebraica: Matthew ‑ I Corinthians. 4 vols. 1859; reprint,Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979.
Lipman, EugeneJ. The Mishnah: Oral Traditionsof Judaism. New York: Schocken Books, 1974.
MacArthur, HarveyK. and Johnston. They AlsoTaught in Parables. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,1990.
Mielziner,Moses. Introduction to theTalmud. 3rd ed. New York: bloch, 1968 reprint of 1925 ed. With selected bibliography onTalmud and Midrash 1925‑67 by Alexander Guttmann.
Neusner, Jacob. Invitation to the Talmud. New York: Harper & Row,1976.
________, ed. The Talmud of the Land of Israel. Vols 1-2, 6-7, 16‑35. Chicago: Univ. of ChicagoPress, 1982‑90.
________, ed. The Tosefta. 6 vols. New York: KTAV,1977‑86.
Oesterley, W. O.E. and Box, G. H., eds. Translationsof Early Documents. 3rd Series: Palestinian‑Jewish & Cognate Texts (Rabbinic). London: SPCK, 1916‑20.
Smith,Morton. Tannaitic Parallels tothe Gospels. Philadelphia: Society of BiblicalLiterature, 1951.
Strack, H. L. Introduction to the Talmud andMidrash. 1945; reprint, New York: Atheneum, 1969.
Strack, H. L. andBillerbeck, P. Kommentar zumNeuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch. 7 vols. Munich: Beck, 1922‑61.
Taylor,Charles. Sayings of the JewishFathers. 2nd ed. New York: KTAV, 1969 reprint of 1897, with new prolegomenonby Judah Goldin.
Urbach, E.E. The Sages. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1979.
