כּוֺכָב> (k™k~b) nom. star (# 3919)
ANE Cognates to k™k~b meaning star are common in the Sem.languages: e.g., Ugar. kbkb or kkb, Akk. kakkabu, Aram. k™kb~', Syr. kaukeb~,Arab. kaukab. Etymologies have been proposedfrom kbb, burn (Akk.,Aram. and Arab.) and from kabba,roll, revolve (Arab.). Unlikemodern Eng. usage but parallel to ancient G, the Sem. word probably includesplanets, comets, meteors, or any bright object in the night sky.
Threefeatures of stars were especially important in the ANE and relevant to OTbackground: (1) the worship ofstars as gods; (2) divination by stars, or astrology; and (3) stars astimekeepers.
1.The worship of astronomical objects as gods is quite old and widespread. Babylonian worship of the sun godŠamaš, the moon god Sin, Ištar as the planet Venus, and Mardukas the planet Jupiter was influential throughout the ANE. This system was later borrowed by theGreeks (and from them by the Romans), so that our modern planet names are thoseof Roman deities.
2.The belief that the heavenly bodies are divine would encourage the thought thatstellar phenomena might be messages for earth, particularly in a societyalready disposed to divination. The Sum. Gudea cylinders (c2100 BC) mention a goddess appearing in adream with a map of the heavens and telling the king that the time is right tobuild a temple. Old Babyloniantexts (c1800 BC) list omens to be inferred from lunar eclipses and otherheavenly phenomena. These werelater compiled (by 1000 BC) into the 70-tablet reference work En‹maAnu Enlil, influentialthroughout the ANE to Hellenistic times, connecting specific phenomena ofsun, moon, planets, stars and weather with events on earth. Unlike Hellenistic (and modern)horoscopic astrology, such predictions involved public events, kings, andnations rather than private individuals.
3.The worship of stars and the belief they predict earthly events may have arisenfrom the fact that the stars certainly predict the seasons and sunrise,functioning as calendars and clocks. As the earth makes its yearly orbit around the sun, the stars movewestward, rising four minutes earlier each night, thus providing a convenientset of markers for the seasons. Already by 3000 BC, the Egyptians had noticed that each year the starSothis (Sirius) rose just before sunrise at the time of the annual Nileflooding. By the Middle Kingdom(c2100-1800 BC) the Egyptians had developed a list of 36"decans" (single stars or constellations) spanning the whole year,with each successively rising with the sun at 10-day intervals. In Mesopotamia a similar system wasdeveloped during the Old Babylonian period (c1800-1500 BC). The positions of such stars could alsobe used to tell time at night (when sundials are useless) as tables had beenconstructed to calibrate the hours of the night with the current day and month.
Babylonianstars and constellations have been identified using the astronomicaltext mulAPIN(c700 BC; Van der Waerden, 1949, 13-16). Sufficient detail is given that nearly all the major Babylonianconstellations have been identified with reasonable certainty. Many of these are the same as theancient G constellations we use today: e.g., our Gemini was also for the Babylonians a pair oftwins; Leo was a lion (possibly a dog); Corvus, a raven; Libra, a pair ofscales; Taurus, a bull; Scorpio, a scorpion; Capricorn, a goat-fish; and Orion,the "true shepherd of the sky." On the other hand, others are different: Ursa Major was a wagon (but cp. Eng. Charles' Wain); Cygnusand part of Cepheus, a panther; Pisces and parts of Pegasus and Andromeda,a large swallow; Canis Major, a bow and arrow; Lyra, a goat; Hercules, a dog;and Aries, a hired laborer. These differences undermine the attractive theorythat a "gospel in the stars" comes down to us from patriarchal times,as proposed by F. Rolleston and popularized by J. A. Seiss and E. W.Bullinger.
OT 1. k™k~b is used 37x with two areas of meaning:(1) commonly as our word "star" (e.g., Gen 1:16; Exod 32:13) and (2)rarely (1-3x) as an alternative term for "angel" (Job 38:7; Isa14:12-13?). Both stars and angelsare called the "hosts of heaven" (e.g., Deut 4:19 vs. 1 Kgs22:19). Some see this as anindication that the stars were thought to be angels, though the connection maybe no more than that angels, too, are bright objects in the sky. Others, with later rabbinic theology,explain this usage by seeing angels in charge of each star, just as angelsare over various nations (Dan 10:20).
2.The stars are created by God (Gen 1:16; Ps 8:3) and under his providentialcontrol (Isa 40:26; Jer 31:35). They were "to separate the day from the night" and "serveas signs to mark seasons and days and years" (Gen 1:14). The sun, of course, marks off the days,the moon indicates the months, and the stars (by their positions relative tothe sun) the seasons and the years. They were also created to praise God (Ps 148:3-6), perhaps by theirbrightness (Dan 12:3; Ps 136:9), purity (Job 25:5), height (Job 22:12) andnumber (e.g., Gen 15:5). They forma significant element in what the psalmist meant by saying, "The heavens declarethe glory of God, the skies proclaim the work of his hands" (Ps19:1). Thus stars are a part ofGod's self-revelation in nature, his handiwork pointing beyond themselvesto God's brightness, purity, greatness and power. The stars being merely created, God'speople are not to worship them (Deut 4:19) as the pagans do. They are not gods, nor are theyeternal, but rather (with the heavens) they are wearing out like clothing andwill one day be discarded (Ps 102:25-26).
Thenumber of stars is uncountably vast (e.g., Gen 15:5), yet apparently finite (Ps147:4). They are often used(occasionally with the sand of the seashore) to illustrate thepromise to Abraham of a multitude of descendants (Gen 15:5; 22:17; 26;4;Exod 32:13; Deut 1:10; 10:22; 28:62). Provisional fulfillment of this promise had already occurred when Israelentered Canaan (Deut 1:10; 10:22) but might be lost again by disobedience ifIsrael brought itself under the covenant curses (Deut 28:62). In his military census, David feared tocount all of Israel (1 Chr 27:23), perhaps thinking such a count would betempting God who had promised an uncountable multitude.
3.In prophetic contexts, stars are used symbolically to represent prominentindividuals C Joseph's brothers in one of his dreams(Gen 37:9-10), the coming ruler in Balaam's vision (Num 24:17), the king ofBabylon in Isaiah's taunt (Isa 14:12-13). In the last of these, the symbol seems to represent the king'sexaltation, and his subsequent abasement is pictured by being cast down tothe earth. In Daniel's eschatologicalpromise to the wise (Dan 12:3), they are to "shine like the brightness ofthe heavens . . . like the stars for ever and ever."
Thedarkening of the stars, sun, and moon is a motif in curse contexts, includingJob's lament regarding the day of his birth (Job 3:9), his characterizationof God's power in judgment (Job 9:7), Qoheleth's picture of old age (Eccl12:2), Isaiah's oracle against Babylon (Isa 13:10), the locust plague of Joel(2:10), and the eschatological darkness which it foreshadows (Joel 3:15).
4.The meaning of terms apparently used for particular stars, planets, andstar-groups are rather uncertain due to the infrequency of their occurrence inthe OT, the lack of specifying detail in such contexts, the rarity ofidentifiable cognate expressions in the Sem. languages, and the diversityof renderings in the ancient versions.
(a)k”yyžn (#3962) occursonly 1x (Amos 5:26), in a context of idolatry. The NIV renders the word "pedestal," from the rootkwn, be firm. More commonly this is assumed to be aproper name k‘w~n for the planet Saturn viewed as a god. The Akk. cognate is kaiw‰nu, Syr. k‘w~n, Arab. kaiw~n. It is assumedthat the peculiar vowels in the Heb. k”yžn were substituted from šiqquş, abomination (#9199), one means by whichbiblical scribes expressed contempt for paganism.
(b)k”m‰ (#3966) occurs3x (Amos 5:8; Job 9:9; 38:31), all in astronomical contexts. The LXX guesses or paraphrases thefirst, gives Arcturus in the second, and Pleiades in the third. The Vulg. gives Arcturus in the firsttwo, but Pleiades in the last. BDBand KBL3 favor the bright, closely grouped star cluster Pleiades onthe basis of Sem. cognates in Akk., Arab., Eth. and Syr. meaning heap, herd orfamily. Other interpreterssuggest one of the bright stars Arcturus, Sirius, or Aldebaran.
(c)kes”l II (#4068) occurs4x, 3x in the sing. with k”m‰,above, and 1x in the pl. (Isa 13:10). The LXX paraphrases the first, gives Hesperus (evening star) for thesecond, and Orion for the third and fourth. The Vulg. has Orion for the first and second, Arcturus forthe third, and splendor for the fourth. The word kes”lI is a common nom., occurring 70x (mostly in Prov) with the meaning fool,shameless one. The Targum Jonathanrenders the Job passages nifila,giant, which is consistent with Greek myths about Orion the giant hunter. Driver (1956, 2) connects these ideaswith the Pesh. rendering gabb~r‰ and the cognate Arab. jabb‰ru, sees in kes”l a nuance thick, stout, clumsy, and soidentifies the constellation as Orion. The pl. occurrence is puzzling: "The stars of the heaven and their constellations will not show their light." It is not easy in such a context to seea reference to the stars that make up Orion or to some few constellationsassociated with Orion, given the first possessive "their." But if we think of the word as meaninggiants, then all the constellations are giant collections of stars, and manyare gigantic pictures of people. So the NIV rendering is perhaps the best guess after all.
(d)mazz~l (#4655) occurs only 1x (2 Kgs 23:5) and that as the pl. mazz~l™t, unless the word mazz~r™t (1x, Job 38:32) is just a variantspelling of the same. The l/r variation does occur in Sem. languages,and the LXX transliterates both occurrences as mazour‚th. BDB (561) suggest the word may be loaned from Assyr. manzaltu, mazaltu, station, abode (of the gods). Later Heb. and Aram. have cognate wordsmeaning star of fortune, fate. Syr. has two cognates meaning zodiac and stations of the moon. All in all, either zodiacalconstellations or planets (which appear only in the zodiac) would fit thedata. Driver (1956, 4-8), in fact,opts for a distinction between the two words, suggesting mazz~l™t means planets, and mazz~r™t, zodiacal circle.
(e)ma`adann™t(#5051) occurs 2x, once in an astronomical context (Job 38:31) and once not (1Sam 15:32). Both passages aresomewhat uncertain. Did Agag cometo Samuel haltingly (NRSV, NEB), confidently (NIV), cheerfully (RSV, NASB),delicately (KJV), trembling (TEV), or struggling (NAB)? BDB and KBL3 suggest a root `nd which involves a transposition ofletters, but means bind. Thus Agag came to Samuel bound, and Job 38:31 asks "Can you bindthe chains of thePleiades, Or loose the cords of Orion?" (NASB), in agreement with theparallelism in Job and with its rendering by the LXX and the Targum.
(f)mišţ~r (#5428) occurs just once, in Job 38:33:"Do you know the laws of the heavens? Can you set up [God's] dominion (mišţ~r) over the earth?" The verbal root šţr occurs in Assyr. and Arab. meaning towrite. Aram. and Syr. have cognatenom. meaning document, and Akkad. another meaning inscription. The nom. š‚ţ‘rin Heb. means official, officer. KBL3 suggests Himmelschrift = Sternenhimmel (heavenly writing = starry sky), thoughthe idea of an written decree,heaven's or God's, seems better to fit both the lexical background and theparallelism in the context.
(g)m‚šek™t (#5436) occurs just once, in Job38:31. The root mšk has the force draw, drag, lead, proceed,prolong, from which the idea arises that the nom. might mean cords, by whichsuch an action is accomplished. BDB (604) see an allusion to an unknown legend in which Orion is draggedby cords. Driver (1956, 3-4) proposesthe word should be pointed as singular (as implied by LXX, Vulg., Pesh.) andread as Orion's belt.
(h)nidg~l™t (#5609) occurs 2x, in Cant 6:4, 10, the former ageographical context, the latter astronomical. The NIV renders the former "majestic as troops withbanners," thelatter "majestic as the stars in procession." The form is apparently a ni. part. used as a subst., from dgl II, carry or set up a standard #1839),so "ones bannered" or "bannered hosts." The NIV rendering takes this in thefirst context as referring to a human army and in the second to the(astronomical) heavenly host. Others derive the part. from dgl I, look, behold, to get things seen, or "awe-inspiring as visions" (Murphy, Hermeneia) or"splendid as the heavenly phenomena" (Snaith, NCB).
(i)`~š III (#6933) occurs 2x (if `ayiš is the same word), both astronomicalcontexts (Job 9:9, 38:32). Thereis considerable disagreement on its identification. In 9:9 the Vulg. gives Arcturus, brightest star in theconstellation Bootes; possibly the LXX agrees, if it did not translate thethree star groups in the order of the MT. But in 38:32, they give Hesperus/Vesper (Venus as the eveningstar). Ibn Ezra claimed it was theBear (Ursa Major), in which case its children (38:32) would probably be the 3stars in the handle of the Big Dipper. Hšlscher and KBL3 give Leo, taking the Arab. `ayžt, lion, to be cognate. Schiaparelli and Driver preferAldebaran, the brightest star in Taurus, with the surrounding Hyadescluster as its children. The Syr.cognate `iyžta' givenin the Pesh. is so identified by Barhebraeus. And `~š I means clothes-moth, which when itfolds its wings, makes a v-shape rather like Aldebaran and the four brighteststars in the Hyades.
P-B Babylonianastronomy and astrology continued to develop, spreading into the G world wherethe more sophisticated G geometry was applied to these studies. An emphasis on individual astrologydevelops, based on the heavens at the time of one's birth, reaching its zenithin the Hellenistic city of Alexandria. Numerous astrological papyri survive from thisperiod in Egypt.
Inthe LXX, k™k~b is rendered about equally often by ast‘rand astron, thelatter usually in the plur. Thereappears to be no strong distinction between these terms.
ThePseudepigraphal literature shows interest in astrology and astronomy. 1 Enoch and Jubilees indicate thatastrology was taught to humans by the angels who sinned in Gen 6:1-4 (1 Enoch8:1-4; Jub 8:3). Serug and Nahorpracticed astrology, but Abraham was turned away from it by "a word whichcomes to his heart" one night while watching the stars to make predictions(Jub 12:16-21). Stars are mountainsof fire (1 Enoch 18:13-15), driven through the heavens by winds (1 En18:4). A large section of 1 Enoch(chs 72-82) is devoted to a description of the detailed movements and nature ofsun, moon and stars allegedly given to Enoch by the angel Uriel.
NT The mostfamous star in the NT is the star of Bethlehem, which brought the Magi from theeast to worship Jesus (Matt 2:1-12). The star has been variously identified as a (super)nova, a comet, aconjunction of planets, an object like the pillar of fire which guided Israel,an angel, or as purely fictional. The behavior of the star after the Magi had consulted Herod (it"went ahead of them until it stopped over the place where the childwas") best fits some localizedsupernatural phenomenon, though some have suggested ways of interpreting thisas an object at astronomical distances. Probably the star is to be understood as a fulfillment of Balaam'sprophecy (Num 24:17) and as symbolic of Jesus (see below).
TheNT follows the OT in connecting the vast number of stars with the promise toAbraham of uncountable descendants (Heb 11:12); in associating stars withangels (Rev 1:20; 9:1; 12:4?); and in seeing eschatological signs in the sun,moon and stars (e.g., Luke 21:25), though here the emphasis is on the starsfalling (Matt 24:29; Mark 13:25; Rev 6:13) more than upon their being darkened(Rev 16:10). One of the trumpetplagues of Rev (8:10-11) consists of a star falling on the rivers and poisoningtheir waters, an effect paralleled in the disastrous meteor fall that ended theCretaceous period (Cowen).
Symbolically,"wandering stars" are used as a vivid picture of the hereticsdenounced in Jude 13, probably in the sense of comets moving away from the suninto the darkness beyond, rather than as planets which Cthough erratic in their movements C always keep coming back. The "morning star" is explicitlya symbol for Jesus in Rev 22:16 and probably also in Rev 2:28 and 2 Pet1:19. In the first two of these,the reference is apparently to the planet Venus as the morning star, a symbolperhaps of Jesus' first advent as the bright light shining in the darknessbefore the coming of day. In 2 Pet1:19, by contrast, the reference seems to be to the sun as "morningstar," with Jesus' second advent in view, when darkness will be entirelybanished. The sun, moon and starsof Joseph's dream (Gen 37) appear again in the heavenly sign of the pregnantwoman in Rev 12:1, variously identified as Mary, Israel, or the people ofGod. Perhaps she and the dragon inthis passage are also to be associated with the constellations Virgo and Draco.
Otherastronomical terms: 6 š~mayim (heaven, sky, # 9028); 6 šemeš (sun, # 9087); 6 y~r‘a (moon, # 3734); 6 ab~' II (hosts, armies [of heaven], # 7372); 6 eder (constellations, # 2540).
Bibliography
KBL3441-42; BDB 456; TWOT425-26; IDB 4:236-44;IDBS 76-78; ISBE 1:341-48; BEB 1:223-28; ZPEB 1:393-99; EJ 3:788-807; B. L. Van der Waerden,"Babylonian Astronomy. II. The Thirty-Six Stars," JNES 8, 1949, 6-26; "BabylonianAstronomy. III. The Earliest AstronomicalComputations," JNES10, 1951, 20-34; W. Hartner, "The Earliest History of the Constellationsin the Near East and the Motif of the Lion-Bull Combat," JNES 24, 1965, 1-16; G. Schiaparelli, Astronomyin the Old Testament,1905; E. W. Maunder, Astronomy of the Bible, 1908; F. Rochberg-Halton,"Astrology in the ANE," ABD 1:504-07; G. R. Driver, "Two Astronomical Passages inthe OT," JTS 4,1953, 208-12; G. R. Driver, "Two Astronomical Passages in theOT," JTS 7,1956, 1-11; E. L. Martin, The Star that Astonished the World, 1991; R. Cowen, "The Day theDinosaurs Died," Astronomy, Apr 1996, 34-41.
Robert C. Newman