New Testament
Backgrounds
Notes for NT601 New Testament Backgrounds
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Prepared by
Robert C. Newman
Professor of New Testament
Copyright 1991
This syllabus or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any formwithout permission from the author. Permission will be granted to reviewers, authors, teachers and othersengaged in the promotion of biblical studies.
Biblical TheologicalSeminary
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TABLEOF CONTENTS
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE COURSE 5
PART ONE: HISTORY: THEINTERTESTAMENT PERIOD 7
I. INTRODUCTION 7
A.Our Sources of Information 7
B.Daniel's Overview 8
II. PALESTINE UNDER PERSIA (539-331 BC) 9
A.History of the Medo-Persian Empire 9
B.The Aramaic Language 9
C.Synagogue & Temple 10
III. PALESTINE UNDER THE GREEKS (331-c160BC) 11
A.Alexander and His Successors 11
B.Hellenism 12
C.The Septuagint Translation 12
IV. JEWISH INDEPENDENCE UNDER THEHASMONEANS (160-63 BC) 13
A.Antiochus 4 & the Abomination of Desolation 13
B.The Maccabean Revolt 13
C.The Hasmonean Dynasty 14
D.Pharisees, Sadducees & Essenes 15
V. PALESTINE UNDER THE ROMANS (65 BC-135AD & beyond) 16
A.End of the Hasmonean Dynasty 16
B.The Herod Family 16
C.Messianic Expectation 17
D.The End of the Jewish State 18
E.Palestine after the Fall of Jerusalem 19
PART TWO: NEW TESTAMENT GEOGRAPHY & CHRONOLOGY 20
I. THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE 20
A.Physical Features 20
B.Political Features 22
II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF JERUSALEM 223
A.The Valleys around Jerusalem 23
B.The Hills around Jerusalem 24
C.The City Walls of the NT Period 24
D.Sections of the City 24
E.Major Buildings, Structures 25
F.Other Sites re/ Jesus' Ministry 26
III. MEDITERRANEAN GEOGRAPHY 26
A.Physical Features 26
B.Political Features 27
IV. THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 29
A.Origin of the Christian Era 29
B.Gospel Chronology 30
C.Apostolic Chronology 31
PART THREE: NEW TESTAMENT CULTURE & ARCHAEOLOGY 35
I. MONEY 35
A.History of Money 35
B.Money in N.T. Times 35
C.Inscriptions & Designs on NT Money 36
II. THE HOME 38
A.Clothing 38
B.Housing 38
C.Agriculture 39
III. SOCIETY 40
A.Buildings, Architecture 40
B.Cities 40
C.Business 41
D.Transportation 41
E.Religion 42
IV. INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY 42
A.Definition of Archaeology 42
B.Methods of Archaeology 43
C.Some Archaeological Sites of the NT Period 44
1.Jerusalem (44)
2.Capernaum (45)
3.Caesarea (45)
4.Herodium (47)
5.Masada (48)
6.Corinth (49)
7.Rome (50)
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE COURSE
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Danker, Frederick W. MultipurposeTools for Bible Study. St.Louis: Concordia, 1960.
Harrington, Daniel J. The New Testament: aBibliography. Theological and Biblical Resources, vol. 2. Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1985.
Hort, Erasmus. The Bible Book: Resources for Reading the New Testament. New York: Crossroad, 1983.
Hurd, John C. A Bibliography of N.T.Bibliographies. Seabury, 1966.
Scholer, David M. A Basic Bibliographic Guide for N.T. Exegesis. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973.
Thiselton, Anthony C. New Testament Commentary Survey. Revised by Don Carson. Leicester, England: TheologicalStudents Fellowship, 1977.
HISTORY
Barrett, C.K. The New Testament Background: Selected Documents. New York: Harper and Row, 1961.
Bonsirven, Joseph. Palestinian Judaism in the Time of Jesus. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1964.
Bruce, F.F. Israel and the Nations. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.
________. New Testament History. New York: Doubleday, 1969.
Ferguson,Everett. Backgrounds of EarlyChristianity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987, 1993.
Foerster,Werner. From the Exile toChrist. Philadelphia: Fortress,1964.
Gowan, DonaldE. Bridge Between theTestaments. Pittsburgh: Pickwick,1976.
Jaegersma, Henk. A History of Israel from Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986.
Kee, Howard Clark. The New Testament in Context: Sources and Documents. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‑Hall, 1984.
Lohse, Eduard. The New Testament Environment. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976.
Pfeiffer, CharlesF. Between the Testaments. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1959.
Reicke, Bo. The New Testament Era. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968.
Rostovzeff, M. Greece. New York: Oxford, 1963 reprint of 1930.
________. Rome. New York: Oxford,1960 reprint of 1928.
Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Penguin, 1965.
Whiston, William,ed. Josephus: Complete Works. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1960.
GEOGRAPHY & CHRONOLOGY
Aharoni, Yohanan and Avi‑Yonah, Michael. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1977.
Baly, Denis. Basic Biblical Geography. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987.
________. TheGeography of the Bible. New York:Harper and Bros., 1957.
Cleave, Richard and Monson, James. Student Map Manual: HistoricalGeography of the Bible Lands. GrandRapids: Zondervan, 1980.
Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology. Princeton: Princeton Univ Press, 1964.
Frank, HarryT. Atlas of the Bible Lands. rev. ed. New York: Hammond, 1984.
Hoehner, Harold. Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Grand Rapids:Zondervan, 1977.
Rasmussen, CarlG. NIV Atlas of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.
Smith, George Adam. Historical Geography of the Holy Land. 16th ed. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1910.
CULTURE & ARCHAEOLOGY
Avi‑Yonah, M. and Stern, E., eds. Encyclopedia of ArchaeologicalExcavations in the Holy Land. 4vol. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice‑Hall, 1975.
Blaiklock, EdwardM. The Archaeology of the NewTestament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,1970.
________ and Harrison, R.K., eds. The New International Dictionary ofBiblical Archaeology. GrandRapids: Zondervan, 1983.
________. The World of the New Testament. London: Ark and Ft. Washington:Christian Literature Crusade, 1983.
Daniel‑Rops, Henri. Daily Life in the Time Of Jesus. New York: Hawthorne, 1962.
Edersheim, Alfred. Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days Of Christ. London: James Clarke, 1961 reprint of1883.
Finegan, Jack. The Archaeology of the New Testament: The Life of Jesus & theBeginning of the Early Church. Princeton: Princeton Univ Press, 1969.
________. The Archaeology of the New Testament: TheMediterranean World of the Early Christian Apostles. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981.
Gorsline, Douglas. What People Wore: A Visual History of Dress from Ancient Times to20th-Century America. New York:Bonanza, 1952.
Jeremias,Joachim. Jerusalem in the TimeOf Jesus. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1967.
Landels, J. G. Engineering in the Ancient World. Berkeley: Univ of California Press,1978.
Mare, W. Harold. The Archaeology of the Jerusalem Area. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.
Metzger, Bruce M. Lexical Aids to Students of N.T. Greek. new ed. Princeton, NJ: published by author,1977.
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. The Holy Land: An Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700. New York: Oxford, 1980.
Packer, J.I., Merrill C. Tenney and William White,Jr. The World of the NewTestament. Nashville: Nelson, 1982.
Pfeiffer, Charles F., ed. The Biblical World: A Dictionary Of Biblical Archaeology. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966.
Ramsay, William M. The Cities of St. Paul. GrandRapids: Baker, 1960 reprint of 1907.
Stephens, William H. The New Testament World In Pictures. Nashville: Broadman, 1987.
Stevenson, James. The Catacombs: Life andDeath in Early Christianity. Nashville: Thomas Nelson,1985.
Tenney, Merrill C. New Testament Times. GrandRapids: Eerdmans, 1965.
Unger, Merrill F. Archaeology and the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962.
Yamauchi, Edwin. The Archaeology of New Testament Cities in Western Asia Minor. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980.
________. Harper's World of The New Testament. New York: Harper and Row, 1981.
PARTONE:
HISTORY: THE INTERTESTAMENT PERIOD
(THROUGHTHE BAR KOCHBA WAR)
I. Introduction
A. Our Sources of Information for thePeriod
1.OT Prediction
Daniel gives anoverview of the period thru visions in chap 2 (statue) and ch 7 (4 wildanimals); see below
Alsogives some details, in Dan 8, 9 & 11 especially
2.OT Apocrypha & Pseudepigrapha
Religiouswritings of Jews, mostly during IT period
Someposing as Scripture, some not
Giveinsight into culture, religious ideas, sects, Biblical interp during period
1Maccabees esp important re/ history of revolt;
2 Macc also adds valuable information,though considered somewhat less reliable
3.Philo
Bornc 20 BC, died after AD 40
AlexandrianJew, member of very prominent family
Studied Greekphilosophy, tried to amalgamate OT w/ selected ideas from Gk philosophy
Influentialamong Christians in allegorizing Scripture
Shows one varietyof Jewish reaction to Hellenism, namely partial accommodation
4.Josephus
BornAD 37, died after 100
Pharisee,member of very prominent Jerusalem family
Involvedon both sides of Jewish war 66‑73
WroteJewish War at requestof Vespasian/Titus, c 80
WroteAntiquities to showJews were ancient race, c 95
Bothcover IT period & NT period, using some sources no longer extant
5.Dead Sea Scrolls
Literaturewritten/copied by Qumran sect, apparently a variety of Essenes
Stricterthan Pharisees, but wrote some "Scripture" of their own
Showeschatological interests of Jews at time
6.Rabbinic Literature
Oraltraditions of rabbis
Midrash(im) ‑ tradition textually organized
Mishnah, Gemara, Talmud ‑ topically organized
Notmuch historical; mostly written centuries later
But give flavor& details of Pharisaic theology, ethics, practice; much on temple practicein last generation or so before AD 70
B. Daniel's Overview of the Inter‑TestamentPeriod
1.Nebuchadnezzar's Image (Dan 2)
a.Pictured (vv 32‑35)
(0)Statue & action
(1)Head of Gold (v 32)
(2)Breast & Arms of Silver (32)
(3)Belly & Sides of Bronze (32)
(4)Legs of Iron (33)
(5)Feet, part Iron, part Clay (33)
(6)Stone smashes image, grows to fill earth (34‑35)
b.Explained (vv 38‑45)
(0)What will happen hereafter (45)
(1)Nebuchadnezzar's universal rule (38)
(2)Another kingdom inferior (?) to Neb's (39)
(3)3rd kingdom to rule over all the earth (39)
(4)4th kingdom strong as iron, breaking (40)
(5)The same (?), part strong, part broken (41‑3)
(6)God will set up a permanent kingdom (44)
2.Daniel's Four Wild Animals (Dan 7)
a.Pictured (vv 3-14, more details in 19, 21-23)
(0)Diverse beasts from sea (3)
(1)lion w/ eagle's wings; plucked, lifted, heart (4)
(2)bear raised on one side; 3 ribs in mouth (5)
(3)leopard, 4 wings, 4 heads (6)
(4) dreadful,terrible, iron teeth, bronze claws, 10 horns, 11th rises, wars w/ saints (7-8,19,21-22)
(5)4th destroyed, dominion given to son of man (9-14)
b.Explained (17-26)
(0‑4)4 kings who will arise from earth (17)
(4) 4th kingdom,diverse from others; horns = kings; wears out saints for 3½ times (23‑26)
(5)Saints take kingdom & possess it forever (18)
3. The Kingdoms
a.Babylon (609‑539 BC)
b.Medo‑Persia (539‑331 BC) \ willuse these
c.Greece (331‑30 BC) | threekingdoms
d.Rome (30 BC‑present?) / tostructure our history
II. Palestine under Persia (539‑331BC)
A. History of the Medo‑PersianEmpire
1.The Rise of Cyrus
Medesalready powerful before 600 BC, helping Babylonians destroy Assyria
Babylonians holdMedes at bay, but begin to weaken with death of Nebuchadnezzar (562)
Cyrus (559)inherits small kingdom of Anshan (later called Persia), tributary to Medes; Babking Nabonidus provides financial support to harass Medes
Cyrusdefeats Medes (550); Nabonidus cancels support!
Cyrushas self crowned king of Medes, forming dual monarchy
Cyrustakes Lydia, rest of Asia Minor (546), then Babylon (539)
2.The Return of the Jews (under Cyrus 1: 539‑530)
UnlikeAssyrians & Babylonians, Cyrus did not wish to offend other religions
Takes part in NewYear ceremony at Babylon (537) to become rightful king of Babylon
RevokesAssyr & Bab deportation policy, allowing Jews to return (Ezr 1:2‑4)
3.The Rebuilding of the (2nd) Temple (Darius 1: 521‑486)
Cyrus initiallyallowed rebuilding to start, but stopped it due to opposition of neighbors (Ezr6:3‑5; Ezr 4)
Jewsallowed to rebuild temple after showing loyalty at accession of Darius
Temple completed515 under leadership of prophets Haggai & Zechariah, governor Zerubbabel& high priest Jeshua
4.Revival in Judah & Rebuilding Walls of Jerusalem (Artaxerxes 1: 465‑423)
Ezra (c458) comes from Babylonia,restores people to observance of law, w/ permission of king
Nehemiah(445) sent by king as governor w/ permission to rebuild walls
B. The Aramaic Language
1.Old Language of Syria (upper Euphrates)
languageof Laban (Gen 31:47; prob Abraham's in Haran)
2.Becomes Diplomatic Language of the Ancient Near East
AssyrianEmpire (c700; Isa 36:11)
BabylonianEmpire (c600; Dan 2:4)
PersianEmpire (c450; Ezra 4:11ff)
3.Adopted by the Jews
apparentlyduring Babylonian exile (see Neh 8:7‑8)
stillin use at time of Christ (Mk 5:41: talitha kum; 7:34: ephatha)
usedin rabbinic Talmud, c550 AD
stillused (w/ different script) in Syrian church today
4.Aramaic's Relation to the Bible
a.Aramaic Passages in the Bible
Danielchs 2‑7; most of Ezra chs 4-7
Oneverse in prophets, Jer 10:11
Oneword in pentateuch, Gen 31:47
b.The Targums
oraltranslations of Bible into Aramaic, perhaps dating back to Bab exile
completed& written down after NT times:
Pentateuch:Targum of Onkelos, Palestinian Targum
Prophets:Targ of Jonathan
C. Synagogue & Temple
1.Rise of the Synagogue
placeof worship for those unable to attend temple
prayer& Bible study rather than sacrifice
timeof origin obscure:
beforeexile? (Ps 74:8)
mostthink during exile when no temple
somesuggest after Maccabean revolt
continuedalongside 2nd temple (515 BC ‑ AD 70)
afterdestruction of 2nd temple, only place of worship
2.The Intertestament Temples
a.Second (Jerusalem) Temple (515 BC ‑ AD 70)
orthodox,continuation of Mosaic regulations
b.Samaritan (Mt. Gerizim) Temple (450/330 ‑ 128 BC)
Samaritans,w/ help from renegade priests
destroyedby Hasmoneans (Maccabees)
stilla holy site in NT times (Jn 4:20) & even today
c.Elephantine (Egyptian) Temple (built before 525 BC;
destroyed410; prob rebuilt by 402; destroyed c 390 BC)
Jewishmercenaries, poss refugees from Manasseh
polytheisticinfluence? cp Jer 44:15‑19: "Queen of Heaven"
appanimal sacrifices before 410 (see BAR May/June 95)
may have gottenhelp in rebuilding from Jerusalem under stipulation that no animal sacrifice
d.(Later) Leontopolis Temple (c160 BC ‑ AD 72)
builtin Maccabean period by refugee high priest Onias 3
destroyedby Romans to eliminate rallying point for Jews
III. Palestine under the Greeks (331‑c160BC)
A. Alexander & his Successors
1.Alexander (336‑323)
succeedsassassinated father at age 20 (336)
invadesAsia Minor (334) w/ 35,000 men, wins victory at Granicus River.
victoryat Issus (333) opens Syria, Palestine, Egypt
victoryat Gaugamela (331) destroys Persian empire
marches east toIndia, finally turning back at demand of soldiers; dies in Babylon planningfurther conquests
begins importantmixing of East & West, including Hellenism (see below) and spread of Greeklanguage
2.The Struggle for Succession (323‑301)
Alexander'sson still baby at A's death; his brother is incompetent
Generals,keeping throne for son, fall to fighting
Antigonus seems tobe headed for complete control (315), but others gang up & kill him inbattle of Ipsus (301)
eventuallyempire broken into several pieces:
Lysimachusruling Thrace
Cassanderruling Macedonia
Seleucusruling Asia Minor, Mesopotamia
Ptolemyruling Egypt & Syria
onlylatter two important for history of Palestine
3.The Ptolemaic Dynasty (to 30 BC; over Palestine 301‑198)
grabbedoff Palestine while others defeating Antigonus
reasonablyfavorable treatment of Jews both in Palestine, Egypt (large no. settle inAlexandria)
4.The Seleucid Dynasty (to 63 BC; controls Pal 198‑c160)
inlong series of wars finally got Pal from Ptolemies
Antiochus 4 favorsHellenistic Jews, allowing them to establish Jerusalem as Hellenistic city
Ant4 later attempts to abolish Judaism (168), leading to Maccabean revolt (167)
B. Hellenism
Greek culture as it developed in East afterAlexander
Influenced Judaism and (somewhat) influenced by it
1. Religion
syncretism(mixing) of eastern & Greek polytheisms
someattempts to mix with Judaism
2.Philosophy
variousschools in Greece spread Eastward
mostimportant: Epicurean, Stoic, Platonic
manyJews adopted various philosophical ideas
e.g.,Philo of Alex (selection of platonic, stoic)
3.Politics
independentcity‑states in Greece
modifiedin East, as under imperial control of Ptolemies & Seleucids
citizenship‑ more restricted in numbers than modern citizenship
4.Influence on Jews
growth ofHellenistic Jews, attracted to one or more features of Hellenism; some radical,some moderate
reaction againstHellenism by Hasidim, Jews determined to be faithful to God's covenant
5.Influence of Judaism on Hellenism
Bibletranslated into Greek
manyGentiles attracted to God of Bible via synagogues
C. The Septuagint Translation
1.Origin of the Version (c250 BC)
a.Letter of Aristeas& its Story
claimsto be written by pagan Greek about 250 BC
72 Jewish eldersfrom Palestine come to Egypt & translate Law at commission of Ptolemy 2
b.Later Additions to Story
translationcovers whole OT
translatorsgot identical results working in pairs
c.General Opinion of Story Today
Aristeas probably written by Jew about 100 BC
Butsome features prob authentic:
-translationinto Greek made at Alexandria
-Pentateuchtranslated as a unit about 250 BC
-scrolls(poss translators) from Jerusalem
-Ptolemy2 allowed work, may have given aid
2.Importance of Version
a.Longest translation of any ancient writing known in antiquity
b.Gives text of OT century or so before oldest Heb texts for most of OT
c.Set pattern for Greek theological terms used in OT & NT
d.Put OT in universal language of Mediterranean
e.Became OT of early church
IV. Jewish Independence under theHasmoneans (160‑63 BC)
A. Antiochus 4 Epiphanes & theAbomination of Desolation
1.Usurps throne from nephew (175), who was under age
2.Strong advocate of Hellenism to unify diverse empire
3. Among Jewsfavors Hellenistic faction (vs. Hasidim) allows them to refound Jerusalem as"Antiochia"
4. Deposesorthodox high priest Onias 3 for O's Hellenistic brother Jason (for a bribe); thenJason for Menelaus (bigger bribe; not even high priestly family)
5. Fuming fromdefeat in Egypt (168), Ant 4 finds Jason has rebelled; puts down revolt &tries to destroy Judaism via decrees forbidding circumcision & kosher,destroying Scripture, rededicating temple to Zeus (himself)
B. The Maccabean Revolt (167‑134)
1.Origin
Seleucids gothrough towns of Judea, enforcing Ant 4's decrees and commanding pagansacrifice
At Modin, agedpriest Mattathias kills Jew who comes forward to sacrifice, then official &his few troops
Matt& 5 sons call for armed resistance, flee to mountains
2.Judah the Maccabee (166‑160)
3rdson of Mattathias; named leader at M's death
militarynickname Macc means "hammer"/ "hammerer"
JudahM leads guerilla campaign, destroying several Sel armies
JM'sforces grow w/ success, matching Sel escalation
Antiochusis busy in E, having left Lysias in charge in W
Lysias invades Palestinew/ large army in 164, but army nearly wiped out in ambush at Emmaus
Macc's takeJerusalem (exc citadel), cleanse & rededicate temple (Dec 164); origin ofHannukah (Feast of Lights)
MeanwhileAntiochus 4 dies (163), Lysias becomes regent
Lysias offerspeace terms acceptable to Hasidim but not to Macc's, thus splitting opposition
JM, heavilyoutnumbered, killed in battle (160)
3.Jonathan (160‑142)
brotherof Judah
escapesdefeat w/ a few followers, become guerillas again
but w/ Ant 4'sdeath, successor Demetrius 2 faces challenge for Seleucid throne from AlexanderBalas
Jonathan able touse diplomacy skillfully when both sides seek his aid; eventually becomesgovernor & high priest
finallykilled (142) by Trypho, another contender for Seleucid throne
4.Simon (142‑134)
lastsurviving son of Mattathias, succeeds Jonathan
supports Demetrius2 against Trypho; in gratitude, Dem makes Judea tax‑exempt (virtuallyindependent)
Simon proclaimed"gov & high priest forever" until true prophet comes to givefurther instructions (1 Macc 14:25‑49)
son‑in‑lawmurders Simon & 2 sons at banquet (134)
C. The Hasmonean Dynasty (134‑63)
1.John Hyrcanus (134‑104)
sonof Simon, not at banquet, succeeds father
becomespowerful militarily, while Seleucids weak
greatlyexpands Judean territory:
-conquerscoastal cities (gaining trade income)
-takesIdumea (Edomites must become Jews or die, fulfilling Ezk 25:14)
-conquersSamaria, destroys Mt. Gerizim temple
Riseof Pharisees & Sadducees
firstappear in history during JHs rule
JH originallyfavors Pharisees, but then dispute occurs and Sadducees gain his favor
2.Aristobolus (103)
oldestson of JH, assumes throne, kills several of own bro's, imprisons another
firstJew to take title "king" since Babylonian conquest
conquersGalilee, leading to settlement of Jews there
diesw/in a year from fear, drink, disease
3.Alexander Jannaeus (102‑76)
Arist'sbro, released from prison & married by A's wife
AJ continuesexpansion of kingdom until nearly as big as David & Solomon's
Pharisees revolt,call in Syrians; AJ about to lose when Phar's defect to him; AJ wins, crucifiesmany Phar's
4.Salome Alexandria (75‑67)
wifeof A & AJ, succeeds at AJ's death
2sons:
Hyrcanus2 ‑ made high priest
Aristobolus2 ‑ given military command
5.End of Hasmonean Independence (66‑63)
Salomedies, succeeded by Hyr 2 (supported by Phar's)
butArist 2 (supported by Sadd's) takes throne from him
Hyr2 flees, opens civil war, calls on Romans
D. Pharisees, Sadducees & Essenes
1.Origins
ratherobscure, but all 3 apparently arise in this period
Sadd's look likeHellenizers of Antiochus 4's time, but prob new growth under continuedinfluence of Hellenism
Phar's &Essenes app develop from Hasidim, Phar's accept, Essenes reject, arrangementsof temple & esp priesthood during Macc period
2.Theology:
| Essenes | Pharisees | Sadducees |
| Name from hasid? | Names from parash? | Name from tsedek? |
| Super Pharisees, abandoned temple | Ritual purity, hedge around Law | More pragmatic, compromising |
| Calvinistic | Calvinistic | Arminian |
| OT + own secret books | OT + oral tradition | OT only |
| Immortality of soul? | Bodily resurrection | No survival |
| Emphasis on angels | Belief in angels | No angels |
| Emphasis on eschatology | Last judgment | No judgment |
3.Influence & Survival
| Essenes | Pharisees | Sadducees |
| Few, more or less withdrawn | Not large, but popular support | Few richest families, especially chief priests |
| Withdrawn from politics, too | Important politically, dominant religiously | Dominant politically, but had to cooperate with Pharisees |
| Qumran destroyed AD 68, some later influence | Survive to dominate Judaism after AD 70 | Destroyed with temple in AD 70 |
| Wrote or copied Dead Sea Scrolls | Rabbinic literature by their heirs | No known writings survive |
V. Palestine under the Romans (63 BC‑135AD & beyond)
A. The End of the Hasmonean Dynasty (63BC)
1.Civil War between Hyrcanus 2 & Aristobolus 2
2.Pompey Intervenes
Romantriumvir in E, mopping up Seleucid empire
Calledin to arbitrate, decides in favor of Hyr
Whenresisted by Arist's forces, takes Jerus
ManyJews taken slaves, scattered thru Rom Emp
Judaealoses much of its conquered territories
Hyr2 made "ethnarch" of Judea (incl Idumea, Perea, Galilee) rather thanking
3.The Pax Romana (c30 BC‑c170 AD)
2centuries of peace over RE beginning w/ Augustus
Greatgrowth in prosperity, reaches peak in 2nd century AD
Importantfor spread of Christianity in 1st century
Relatedfeatures important for spread of Xy:
-Romanroads
-lackof national boundaries
B. The Herod Family
1.Antipater
Idumeanadvisor to Hyr 2, power behind throne
EngineeredHyr 2Ős flight to Arabs & call for Roman help
MadeProcurator of Judea (47 BC) for aiding Julius Caesar
Madeown sons Phasael & Herod administrators
Assassinated43 BC
2.Herod the Great (37‑4 BC)
a.Gains Power
Appointedjoint tetrarch w/ bro Phasael (42)
Brokilled in Parthian invasion, Herod flees to Rome (40)
Senateappoints him King of Jews
Herodreturns w/ army, takes Jerusalem (37)
Thronenot secure till deaths of Anthony & Cleopatra (31)
b.His Troubles
Marries Hasmoneanprincess Mariamne (g‑dau of both Arist 2 & Hyr 2), divorcing 1st wifeDoris
Doris & sonAntipater later cause trouble, so does Mariamne's mother, Herod's own jealousy
Eventually H putsMariamne to death, later her two sons Aristobolus & Alexander, finallyAntipater
Augustus:ŇBetter to be H's hus(pig) than his huios (son)Ó
c.His Accomplishments
Territoryruled nearly size of HasmoneansŐ & DavidŐs
RefurbishesJerusalem Temple (19 BC‑66 AD)
Otherbuilding projects: Caesarea, Sebaste, etc.
Slayingof the Innocents (5 or 4 BC)
no extrabiblical confirmation, but cptreatment of own family, intention for leaders at his death
3.Herod's Sons ‑ received his territory by will at death
a.Archelaus ‑ Judea/Samaria/Idumea (to AD 6)
b.Antipas ‑ Galilee/Peraea (to 39)
c.Philip ‑ Iturea/Trachonitis (to 34)
4.Herod's Descendants ‑ by Mariamne (royal blood)
a.Herod Agrippa 1 ‑ King of Jews, AD 41‑44
b.Herod Agrippa 2 ‑ King (though not of Jews) dc AD 100
C. Messianic Expectation at the End ofthe I.T. Period
1.Messianic Fervor
timing,influence in Jewish revolt
(seemy "Time of the Messiah," in Evidence of Prophecy)
2. The Person of the Messiah
Viewschange w/ time:
-early extra‑Biblmaterials see Messiah as more than human, though no clear view of his deity;
-laterrabbinic material tends to minimize Messiah
OT data posed various paradoxes re/office, activity, type of coming, type of being; these solved by NT and Jesus(see my "NT Model of Messiah," Evidence of Prophecy)
3.Various Views of the Messianic Period
a.Messianic period only (Millennium, on earth)
[somewhatlike Post‑Mill view]
(1)Merely freedom for Israel ‑ R. Samuel
(2)Miraculous phenomena ‑ 1 Enoch (1); Test 12 Patr
b.Eschaton only (Eternal State, heaven or paradise)
[sortof A‑Mill view]
1Enoch (3), 2 Enoch
c.Both Messianic period and Eschaton (M.P. 1st, naturally)
[sortof Pre‑Mill view]
mostcommon: 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, Pss Sol, most Rabbis
4.The Order of Events (acc to view 3c)
a.Signs preceding end
Moraldecay, calamities, signs in heaven, forerunner
b.Messianic kingdom established
(1)Return of Israel from exile
(2)Punishment of nations
(3)Messiah Rules (role in conquest varies)
c.The Days of the Messiah ("Millennium" in Xn theology)
(1)Variable features (e.g., place of nations), but usually marvelous
(2)Length uncertain (40 yr to over 1000)
(3)Ends w/ rebellion of Gog & Magog
d.The Age to Come ("Eternal State" in Xn theology)
(1)Resurrection
(2)Judgment
(3)Eternal state of punishment/reward
D. The End of the Jewish State
1.The Roman Procurators (AD 6‑66)
Began withreplacement of Archelaus, deposed at Jewish request for misgovernment
Revolt of Zealotsat census of AD 6 a sign of things to come; Zealots grow stronger as Roman‑Jewishrelations deteriorate
Rom emperor Gaius(Caligula) orders own statue erected in Jerusalem Temple (41); dies beforecarried out
Procuratorscontinue (except for 41‑44, when Herod Agrippa I rules) until outbreak ofJewish revolt
In general,procurators did not understand Jews, were frequently antagonistic, aggravatingconditions and so strengthening Zealots; last two (Albinus, Florus) especiallywicked
2.The (First) Jewish Revolt (AD 66‑73)
Started byincident between Jews and Gentiles in Caesarea, spread and fanned by procurator& Zealots to enflame whole country
Moderate Jews ableto take leadership at first, but gradually lost out to more radical Zealots
Ended indestruction of Jerusalem, its temple (AD 70) and Jewish state; mopping upoperation completed with fall of Masada in AD 73
E. Palestine after the Fall of Jerusalem(AD 70‑135)
1.R. Johanan b. Zakkai & Jamnia
Johananescaped besieged Jerusalem in coffin
got permissionfrom Romans to establish rabbinical school and Sanhedrin at Jamnia
Rebuilt Judaism(w/o state or temple) along lines of Pharisaism, eventually leading to Mishnah& Talmuds
Jewish Xnsexcluded from synagogue by adding curse on Nazarenes to synagogue liturgy (AD90‑100)
2.The Bar‑Kochba (Second) Revolt (AD 132‑35)
Set off by Romanpreparations to build pagan city Aelia Capitolina on site of Jerusalem
R. Akibarecognizes Simeon b. Koseba as Messiah & fulfillment of Num 24:17 (star = kochba)
Revolt at firstsuccessful, w/ Roman troops spread thin; eventually put down w/ considerableslaughter
Jewsforbidden to come near Jerusalem (Aelia)
Judaismceases to be a missionary religion
PARTTWO:
NEWTESTAMENT GEOGRAPHY & CHRONOLOGY
I. The Geography of Palestine
A. Physical Features (see Hammond BibleAtlas B-4, overhead & slides)
on large scale, littlechange since NT times
1.Major Regions from West to East
majorstructures form bands aligned N‑S
listthese here moving from West to East
direction ofprevailing winds (W => E), carrying moisture from Mediterranean, helpsexplain climate of each region
a.Coastal Plain / Plain of Sharon
flat,fertile where not too sandy or salty
easyto invade from outside country (from Egypt, Syria)
b.Shephelah / Lowlands
lowrelative to central hill country (item c, below)
rollinghills, wide valleys; travel along valleys
stillrelatively easy to invade
c.Hill Country
sharphills, v‑shaped valleys; travel along ridges
muchmore difficult to invade
use terracing foragriculture; good rainfall to W of main ridge, poor to E (cp rainfall W & Eof Rockies)
d.Rift Valley
geologicfault (graben)extending S into Africa
wideu‑shaped valley, with Jordan R in middle
hot& arid away from river, so irrigated for crops
e.Trans‑Jordan Plateau
higher than hillcountry, relatively well‑watered at W edge, but quickly becoming desertto E
2.Smaller Geographic Features
listingthese moving from N to S
a.Mt. Hermon
S‑mostlarge peak of Anti‑Lebanon range (see B‑8)
snow‑coveredall year, over 9000 ft high
b.Galilee & Mt. Tabor
hilly,best‑watered area in Palestine
higherin N, lower in S (Upper Gal, Lower Gal)
reasonablycool except around Sea of Galilee
Mt.Tabor is isolated peak, over 1900 ft, just N of Jezreel Valley
c.Jezreel Valley / Plain of Esdraelon
E‑Wvalley connecting coast w/ Jordan V
separatesSamaria from Galilee
easiestconnection from Med Sea to Rift Valley
soimportant for trade routes
d.Mt. Carmel
longE‑W ridge on S side of Jezreel V
maxheight about 1800 ft
formsbarrier to N‑S travel; trade routes thru passes;
controlof passes important militarily;
Megiddocontrols one such pass
e.Wilderness (of Judea)
a badlands‑likeregion E of Jerusalem, where combination of low rainfall and poor chalky soilproduce a virtually uninhabited area
f.Negev
aridland south of Hebron, flat to rolling
soilgood, but very little rainfall
someagriculture possible using tricks to concentrate water
3.Major Bodies of Water around Palestine
a.Mediterranean Sea
large body of salt water, connected toAtlantic at Gibraltar
few natural portson Palestine coast, so Jews did not become seafarers, involved in trade mostlyas middlemen
b.Sea of Galilee (Sea of Tiberias)
freshwater lake, surface 600 ft below sea level
fedby Jordan R which also continues as its outlet
importantfor fishing then and now (see map B‑7)
topography& climate can produce fierce storms
c.Jordan River
headwaterson lower slopes of Mt. Hermon
descends about2300 ft in 100 mi (not counting meanders) through Sea of Galilee to Dead Sea
d.Dead Sea (Lake Asphaltitus)
surfaceis lowest point on earth, ‑1296 ft
extremelysalty; fish cannot live in it
minedthen and today for minerals
B. Political Features (overhead, Hammond,maps B‑26 and B‑5)
1.Political Divisions during Ministry of Christ
a.Judea
includedSamaria and Idumea
ruledby Roman procurators AD 6‑41, 44‑66,
byHerod Agrippa 1 from 41‑44
b.Galilee
areaW of Sea of Galilee
ruled by HerodAntipas 4 BC ‑ AD 39, then by Roman procurators and H Agrippa 1 likeJudea
c.Perea
narrowstrip E of Jordan R inhabited mainly by Jews
ruledby same rulers as Galilee
d.Tetrarchy of Philip
multi-ethnicregion NE of Sea of Galilee
mostlyGentile inhabitants
ruled by Philip,son of Herod the Gt, 4 BC ‑ 34 AD, then by Roman procurators and H Ag 1as above
e.Decapolis
aleague of (usually ten) Hellenistic cities, plus their city territories
mostlyGentile inhabitants
independentof Antipas, Philip, Agrippa, under Romans
2.Cities of Palestine during 1st Century AD (see map B‑26)
a.Jerusalem ‑ Jewish capital
b.Caesarea ‑ Roman capital of Palestine
builtas artifical port by Herod the Great
bothJew and Gentile inhabitants
c. Sebaste ‑OT Samaria rebuilt by Herod for his army veterans; inhabitants mostly Gentile
d. Tiberias ‑new city built by Herod Antipas as capital for Galilee
e. CaesareaPhilippi ‑ built by Philip as capital for his Tetrarchy
f.Decapolis Cities
Scythopolis,Hippos, Gedara, Gerasa, Philadelphia
g.Galilean Towns
Nazareth,Cana, Magdala, Capernaum, Chorazin, Bethsaida
h.Judean Towns
Jericho,Bethany, Bethlehem, Emmaus
3.Major Roads (see Hammond, map B‑5)
a. Via Maris (Wayof the Sea) ‑ coastal road from Egypt,splits at Megiddo, one branch toAntioch, other to Damascus and Mesopotamia
b. King's Highway ‑on T‑J Plateau, from Gulf of Aqabah to Damascus
c. Ridge Routethru Hill Country ‑ less important and more difficult travel, butconnects Jerusalem w/ Galilee
4.The Herodian Fortifications (see B‑26)
builtby Herod Gt for personal safety
justthree listed here, there were several more
a.Machaerus ‑ E of Dead Sea, where John Baptist put to death, acc toJosephus
b. Masada ‑W of Dead Sea; fortified mesa with several palaces; last stand of Zealots AD 73
c. Herodium ‑SE of Bethlehem; also fortified palace; Herod's tomb acc to Josephus
II. The Geography of Jerusalem (Hammond,B‑29, overhead, slides)
A. The Valleys around Jerusalem
1.Hinnom ‑ W and S of city
asplace where garbage burned, Ge‑Hinnom became picture of hell
2.Kidron ‑ E of city betw Temple and Mt. of Olives
locationof Gethsemane
3. Tyropoeon(cheesemakers) ‑ within city, betw Temple Mt. and higher hill of UpperCity to W; now largely filled in
B. The Hills around Jerusalem ‑ themore important ones
1.Ophel
siteof City of Jebusites & David
2.Moriah
siteof Temple, and (app) Abraham's sacrifice
probablyZion = Ophel or Moriah
3.Mt. of Olives
outsidecity c 1/2 mi to E
atedge of wilderness
onway from Jericho to Jerusalem
siteof ascension
4.Hill of Upper City
Wof and higher than Ophel or Moriah
calledZion in Middle Ages, but prob misidentified
C. The City Walls in the N.T. Period
1.South Wall
some dispute (seeB‑29) whether wall enclosed Tyropoeon V at NT time; I believe it did, andwe will test that way
prob(contra Hammond) wall followed N side of Hinnom V
2.East Wall
onW side of Kidron V and along E side of Temple
3.West Wall
onE side of upper part of Hinnom V
4.North Walls
citymost vulnerable on N, as not protected by gorges
a.1st N Wall
fromJoppa Gate towers to middle of Temple
b.2nd N Wall
fromJoppa Gate towers N, then E to Antonia
c.3rd N Wall (not on B‑29, but see B‑34‑35)
begunafter Jesus' ministry, by Herod Agrippa I, finished during revolt
D. Sections of The City (Hammond, B‑34‑5,slides)
1.City of David
oldOphel Hill; Hammond calls this Lower City
2.Temple Mount
MtMoriah
3.Lower City
probin Tyropoeon V, contra B‑25, etc.
4.Upper City
hillbetw Hinnom and Tyropoeon
5.Second Quarter
betw1st and 2nd North Walls
6.New City / Bezetha
betw2nd and 3rd North Walls; suburb at Jesus' time
E. Major Buildings, Structures
1.Temple Complex
notecourts and porticoes (B‑25, B‑29)
about750 feet EW x 1500 feet NS
2.Fortress Antonia
NWof Temple and adjoining it
traditionally siteof Jesus' Roman trial, though many now think this was at Herod's Palace (below)
3.Jaffa Gate Towers
3built by Herod, named for brother Phasael, wife Mariamne, and friend Hippicus
4.Herod's Palace
builtby Herod the Great
probused by Roman governor when in city, rather than by Herod Antipas
alternatesite for Jesus' Roman trial
5.Sanhedrin Building
Called"Hall of Hewn Stones" in Rabbinic literature
nearTemple, but location now uncertain
probsite of Jesus' sentencing on Fri morning
6.Hippodrome
stadiumfor chariot races (as in film Ben Hur)
locationuncertain, some put in Tyropoean V
7. Theatre
likeHippodrome, mentioned by Josephus, but location uncertain
F. Other Sites related to Jesus' Ministry
1.Pool of Bethesda
Nof Temple and NE of Antonia
fiveporticoes, see John 5
2.Pool of Siloam
S(W)of Temple near junction of Tyropoeon and Hinnom, see John 9
3.Golden Gate
Egate of Temple courts
Jesusapp passed thru at triumphal entry, see Mark 11
4,5. Upper Room & Caiaphas'House
bothtraditionally in Upper City
6.Gethsemane
olivegrove in Kidron V
severalsites claimed
7.Calvary / Golgotha
two sites claimed:
a.Church of Holy Sepulchre
no longer looksauthentic, but most likely to be so on basis of archeological and historicalevidence
b.Gordon's Calvary
prob more likewhat Calvary looked like in Jesus' time, but evidence against its authenticity
III. Mediterranean Geography
A. Physical Features (Hammond, B‑24)
1.Bodies of Water
a.Mediterranean Sea
calledGreat Sea in OT, not named in NT
calledMare Internum by Romans
b.Black Sea
Nof Asia Minor
c.Aegean Sea
betwGreece and Asia Minor
d.Adriatic Sea
todayrestricted to area betw Italy and Greece
inNT times, sometimes viewed extending to Central Med (Acts 27:27)
e.Ionian Sea
sometimeslower part of Adriatic is so named
f.Tyrrhenian Sea
triangularsea betw Italian boot, Sicilian football, Corsica and Sardinia
2.Principal Islands
a.Cyprus
NEcorner of Med
ourmetal copper named for island
evangelizedby Paul & Barnabas on 1st mj, Acts 13
b.Crete
Sof Aegean Sea, below Greece and Asia Minor
homeof ancient Minoan civilization before 1400 BC
Titusput in charge of Xn work here by Paul (Tit 1:5)
c.Sicily
footballbeing kicked by Italian boot
d.Sardinia
e.Corsica ‑ Napoleon born here
f.Malta (see B‑33)
Sof Sicily
verysmall, but famous for Paul's shipwreck, Acts 27
g.Patmos (see B‑37)
about50 mi SW of Ephesus
evensmaller, hundreds of islands in Med this big
siteof John's banishment when he wrote Revelation
B. Political Features (1st cen AD; B‑24)
1.Provinces of Roman Empire
a.Syria
Palestineincluded for miltary purposes
b.Egypt (Aegyptus)
almost a privatepreserve of Emperor, to guarantee supply of grain for Rome and its dole to poor
c.Cilicia
Paul'snative province
d.Galatia
centralAsia Minor
Paul's1st mj in S part of province
e.Asia
notcontinent, but western Asia Minor
f.Macedonia
Nof Greece
Paulvisited on 2nd mj
g.Achaia
Greeceproper
h.Other Provinces
Britannia,Gallia, Hispania, Mauretania, Africa, Cyrenaica, Italia,
Illyricum,Moesia, Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia
2.Cities of Roman Empire
NOTE:1,2,3 are largest cities; A,B,C mark famous schools
a.Jerusalem k. Miletus
b.Caesarea l. Ephesus
c.Tyre m.Troas
d.Damascus n. Philippi
e.Antioch (Syria)(3) o.Thessalonica
f.Tarsus (C) p. Athens (A)
g.Pisidian Antioch q. Corinth
h.Iconium r. Rome(1)
i.Lystra s.Carthage
j.Derbe t.Alexandria (2, B)
3.Roman Road System (see Yamauchi, NT World, 117)
eventuallya ¼ million mile system of paved roads!
a.Via Appia
fromRome E to heel of boot
b.Via Egnatia
acrossMacedonia, sort of extension of Via Appia
c.Old Route across central Asia Minor
usedby Paul from Antioch to Ephesus
d.Palestinian Roads (see B‑5)
manyupgraded to Roman quality in 2nd cen AD
IV. The Chronology of the New Testament
A. Origin of the Christian Era
1.Problems of Ancient Chronology
Destructionof records
Useof differing calendars
Useof regnal years of various rulers
2.Various Ancient Eras
attemptsto solve problem of regnal years by using systems spanning centuries
a.Olympic Era (Ol)
byolympiads (units of 4 years), then numbering years w/in olympiad
startedapprox July 1, 776 BC
usedby many Greek & Hellenistic historians
b.Roman Era (AUC)
fromyear of founding of Rome (ab urbe condita)
somedisagreement on starting year until 1st cen BC
finallysettled on starting January 1, 753 BC
usedby most Roman historians
c.Seleucid Era (AS - anno Seleucidae)
fromyear of founding of Seleucid dynasty
startedOct 7, 312 BC (Macedonian calendar)
orApr 3, 311 BC (Babylonian calendar)
mostwidely used ancient era: used in 1 & 2 Macc, Josephus, Eusebius
d.Jewish Eras
(1)Destruction of 2nd Temple
occurredAug 5, AD 70
usedin Palestine & some medieval Heb works
(2)Era of World (AM ‑ anno mundi)
measuredfrom creation of world
usingMasoretic Text, no gaps, some guesswork
startsSept 21, 3761 BC
e.Era of Diocletian
fromaccession of Diocletian as Rom emperor
startsAug 29, AD 284
3.The Christian Era (AD ‑ anno Domini)
a.Dionysius the Little
monasticscholar who devised AD system
usinginformation available at his time (525 AD)
identifiedAD 1 with AUC 754
Xnera uses Roman calendar, year beginning Jan 1
b.Resulting Synchronisms
AD1 = AUC 754 = Ol 194,4/195,1 = c312 AS
B. Gospel Chronology (see my syllabus, GospelHistory)
1.The Roman Emperors
In practice, most inscriptions, coins,etc dated by rule of emperors, etc., rather than by AUC era; w/ thousands ofsuch items, most Roman events can be dated closely
| Emperor | Date | Biblical or Other Event |
| Augustus | 30 BC –AD 14 | Birth of Christ |
| Tiberius | AD 14-37 | Death & resurrection of Christ |
| Gaius (Caligula) | 37-41 | Statue to temple |
| Claudius | 41-54 | Famine in East, Acts 11:28 Expels Jews, Acts 18:2 |
| Nero | 54-68 | Persecutes Christians Deaths of Peter & Paul |
| Galba, Otho, Vitellius | 68-69 | 69: Year of the 4 Emperors |
| Vespasian | 69-79 | Destruction of Jerusalem |
| Titus | 79-81 | |
| Domitian | 81-96 | 2nd major persecution |
| Nerva | 96-98 | |
| Trajan | 98-117 | ~ 100: death of John |
| Hadrian | 117-138 | Bar-Kochba revolt |
2.Beginning of Jesus' Ministry: AD 26/27 or 28/29
a.In reign of Tiberius (14‑37) and Pilate (26‑36)
b.John B's ministry dated by Luke 3:1 as beginnning in 15th yr ofTiberius:
AD28/29 if from beginning of sole reign
AD26/27 if from beginning of coregency with Augustus
c.Jesus cast out moneychangers early in ministry,
whentemple had been 46 yr in rebuilding:
Josephus,Ant 15.11.1 givesstarting date as 19/18 BC
so46 yrs later = 26/27
orif measured from completion of naos= 28/29
d.Summary
two choices; most presently favor earlierof two as better fitting accepted date for Jesus' birth
3.Length of Jesus' Ministry
for us who acceptbiblical data, choices are 2+ and 3+ years, depending on interpretation of John4:35 and John 5:1 (see my Gospel History syllabus)
results range fromAD 29 to 33 for crucifixion & resurrection; commonest view is AD 30
4.Birth of Jesus: about 5 BC
a.Reign of Augustus (Luke 2:1), so between 30 BC and AD 14
b. Herod stillalive, so no later than 4 BC by best evidence; eclipse of moon mentioned byJosephus (Ant 17.6.4)calc for 12 Mar 4 BC; fits Josephus' remarks re/ length of Herod's reign
c. Census ofQuirinius (Lk 2:2): a point of much debate, as only recorded census in AD 6;prob Lk refers to earlier ("first") census
d.Jesus about 30 years old at beginning of ministry (Lk 3:23):
worksnicely for birth shortly before Herod's death:
e.g.,if born Dec, 5 BC, would have been 30 on Dec, AD 26;
need to reworkchronology of Herod or take 30 yrs rather loosely to get later dates for Jesus'public ministry
C. Apostolic Chronology (see my syllabus,Apostolic History)
1.Relative Chronology of Acts and Galatians
a.Chronological References in Acts
1:3 Jesusappeared to disciples for 40 days
betwresurrection & ascension
11:26 Paul &Barnabas in Antioch for 1 year
beforefamine visit to Jerusalem
18:2 Priscilla& Aquila recently from Rome because
Claudiusforced Jews to leave
18:11 Paul taughtin Corinth 1½ years
[2ndmiss journey at least 2 years]
19:8 Paulpreached in Ephesus synagogue 3 mo
19:10 Paul taughtin school of Tyrannus 2 years
20:31 Paul'ssummary to Ephesian elders: 3 yr
20:3 Paulin Achaia 3 months
[3rdmiss journey at least 3 or 4 years]
24:27 Paul inprison Caesarea 2 years
28:11 Paul'sgroup shipwrecked on Malta 3 mo
28:30 Paul underhouse arrest in Rome 2 years
[datesdense near end of Acts, rare at beginning]
b.Chronological References in Galatians
1:18 Paul's1st visit to Jerusalem after
conversionwas 3 yr after
2:1 Paulmade another visit 14 yr later
[ambiguity:14 yr from when? what visit is this?]
c.Attempting a Relative Chronology from Close of Acts
| Event | Relative Year |
| Close of Acts | 0 |
| Paul reaches Rom | -2 |
| Paul leaves Caesarea | -3 |
| Paul arrested in Temple | -5 |
| 3rd missionary journey ends | -6 |
| 3rd missionary journey begins | -9? |
| 2nd missionary journey ends | -10? |
| 2nd missionary journey begins | -12? |
| Jerusalem Council | -13? |
d.Attempting a Relative Chronology from Conversion of Paul
| Event | Relative Year |
| PaulŐs conversion | 0 |
| 1st Jerusalem visit | +3 |
| Jerusalem Council | +14 or 17 |
2.Some Connections with Secular History
a.Death of Herod Agrippa I: AD 44
narratedin Acts 12:23 and Josephus, Ant19.18.1
b.Edict of Claudius: 49
mentionedin Acts 18:2 and Suetonius, Claudius 25
butno date given until Orosius (~ 415)
c.Gallio, Proconsul of Achaia: 51‑53
Acts18:12 and Delphi inscription
d.Accession of Festus: 57‑60
Acts24:27; referred to by Josephus several times, but
dateof accesssion not given
ofpossible range given above, 59‑60 seems more
likelyin view of Paul's remark to predecessor
Felixin Acts 24:10
e.Roman Fire: night of July 18/19, AD 64
Nerolater blames Christians, persecution begins
f.Fall of Jerusalem: late Aug, 70
g.Domitian persecution: AD 95‑96
probablyoccasion of John's exile to Patmos
3. Suggested Absolute Chronology
| Year BC/AD | Event |
| 5 BC | Birth of Jesus |
| 26/27 AD | Beginning of JesusŐ Ministry |
| 30 | Resurrection of Jesus |
| 32-37 | Conversion of Paul |
| 44 | Death of James, son of Zebedee |
| 48-50 | PaulŐs 1st Missionary Journey |
| 50 | Jerusalem Council |
| 52-53 | 2nd Missionary Journey |
| 54-58 | 3rd Missionary Journey |
| 58-60 | Paul imprisoned, Caesarea |
| 61-63 | Paul imprisoned, Rome |
| 63ff | PaulŐs later travels |
| 64 | Roman fire; Xy becomes a crime |
| 64-68 | Deaths of Peter & Paul |
| 70 | Fall of Jerusalem to Romans |
| 95-96 | John on Patmos |
| After 98 | Death of John; end of apostolic age |
PARTTHREE:
NEWTESTAMENT CULTURE & ARCHAEOLOGY
I. Money
A. History of Money (slide illustrated)
papermoney is modern outside of far east
metalliccoinage used in ancient near east and Greco‑Roman world
apparose in attempt to standardize metal ingots
earliestknown c 550 BC in Lydia, just stamp on metal
graduallybecomes more elaborate to late Greek & early Roman periods
eventuallybecomes medium of political propaganda
B. Money in New Testament Times
1.Metals minted into coinage
gold,silver, copper (bronze), electrum (alloy of gold & silver)
2.Some of the Major Coin Types (for NT background)
| Metal | Roman | Greek | Jewish |
| | | | |
| Gold | Aureus (25D) | | |
| | | Dekadrachm (10d) (also in silver) | |
| | | | |
| Silver | | Tetradrachm (4d) | = Shekel (s) |
| | Denarius (D) | = Drachma (d) | = Zus (¼ s) |
| | | | |
| Copper | Sestertius (¼ D) | | |
| | | Obol (1/6 d) | |
| | Quadrans (1/40 D) | | Prutah (Mite) |
| | | | |
3.Coin Values
Not easy toconvert to modern money due to changes in price structure caused bymechanization, end of slavery
a.Wage equivalent: D = d = day's wage for common laborer (Matt 20:2)
=c $25 (@ min wage $3/hr)
b.Bullion equivalent: D = c $.60 (silver @ $5/oz)
c.Purchasing power: intermediate, prob c $2
4. Coin Sizes: compared to US coins(ancient usually thicker)
a.Half dollar: Sestertius (but copper)
b.Quarter: Shekel, Tetradrachm
c.Dime: Drachma, Denarius, Zus
d. Half‑dime (old US coin):Lepton, Quadrans, Prutah
5.Other Monetary Amounts
Theseare not coins, butweights, usually of silver
a.Mina or Pound (Luke 19:13)
littleover a pound (1.25 lb)
=50 shekels = 200 D, about a year's wages
b.Talent (Matt 25:15)
60minas (about 75 lb)
=3,000 shekels = 12,000 D = 50 yr wages
C. Inscriptions and Designs on N.T. Money
1.Greek Coins
rarelydated; if so, usually yr of king's reign
obverse(front) usually a ruler or god/goddess
reverseusually symbolic or god/goddess
inscriptionsvary considerably:
manyhave none
othersrather elaborate
samples:(see slides)
siglos,Persia (5th cen BC)
tetradrachm,Egypt, Ptolemy 1 (c300 BC; see picture, B-20)
(obv:Alexander; rev: Athena; insc: "of Alexander")
goldoctodrachm of Ptol 1 (obv: Ptol 1)
silvershekel (tetradrachm) of Tyre (below & B-29)
| 
1 |
(obv:Melkart = Herakles; rev: eagle;
insc:"Tyre the Holy and Protected")
thiscoin accepted by Jerusalem Temple for head tax
probstater in fish's mouth, 30 pieces silver,
coinsold by money changers
2.Roman coins
usuallydated by consulate of reigning emperor
obverseusually ruling emperor
revusually deity or personification
inscriptionsfairly stereotyped, e.g.:
![]()
TICAESAR DIVI AUG F AUGUSTUS / PONTIF MAXIM
TiberiusCaesar, Son of Divine Augustus, Augustus /
Pontifex Maximus (chief priest of Romanreligion)
IMPCAES VESPASIAN AUG PM TRP PP COS III / IUDAIA CAPTA
EmperorCaesar Vespasian Augustus, Pontifex Maximus,
Tribunican Power, Father of theFatherland, 3rd
Consulate / Judaea taken captive
samples:
denariusof Tiberius (obv: Tiberius; rev: Livia? Vestal Virgin?)
(above& B-28)
probthis is tribute money (see Matt 22:19)
sestertiusof Vespasian (obv: Vespasian; rev: Judaea, soldier?)
(seeB-35)
3.Jewish coins: no silver coins until 1st revolt (AD 66)
1strevolt coins dated, some earlier also dated
noimages of people on coins
usuallyreligious symbols or objects
variableinscriptions
samples:
largebronze of Herod (obv: tripod; rev: incense altar?
inscr:BASILEWS HERODOU, "belonging to King Herod")
prutahof Pilate (obv: augur's wand; inscr: TIBERIOU
KAICAROS,"belonging to Tiberius Caesar")
shekelof 1st revolt (68‑69) (next page & B-35)
obv:cup; inscr: "shekel of Israel"; "year 3"
rev:pomegranates; inscr: "Jerusalem the Holy"
tetradrachm/shekelof Bar Kochba revolt (134‑35)
obv:Jerus temple; ark? star?
rev:citron & ethrog ("bouquet" of myrtle, palm,
willow)assoc w/ Feast of Sukkoth (Tabernacles)
II. The Home (slide‑illustrated)
A. Clothing
1. Jewish ‑Modern Bedouin has some resemblance to ancient rural Palestinian, as designedfunctionally for hot, arid climate; due to lack of Jewish pictoral art, notmuch information otherwise (some fabrics discovered in caves from Bar Kochbaperiod); richer, more Hellenistic Jews followed Greek and Roman styles
2. Greek ‑ pictorial materialsfrom Natl Geographic,based on ancient paintings, sculpture and temple friezes
chiton,himation, peplos, chlamys, sandals
3.Roman ‑ similar sources
tunic,toga, palla/pallium (himation)
B. Housing
1. Bedouin tent ‑ probsimilar to kind used by Abraham, etc., and by nomads, travelers at NT times(recall that Paul made tents)
2. Stone house inPalestinian village ‑ typical flat roof w/ outside stairway, used asadditional "room"
3.Standard OT period "4‑room" house ‑ rooms aroundcourtyard
4. City houses(average city dweller) ‑ crowded together, face inward; in Rome, walk-upapartments for poor, mansions for rich
5.Roman‑style villa (wealthy rural retreats)
6. Furnishings ‑prob more wooden material which has not survived; rather sparse by ourstandards
7. Lamps ‑wick floating in olive oil; developed from open dish to flat pitcher by NTtimes
8. Pottery ‑much variety over centuries, between cultures; used by archeologists to datevarious levels of dig
C. Agriculture
1.Village Farming Culture (from BAR Biblical Archeology Slide Set)
a.Farmers' Village
livedtogether (gregarious, protection), fields outside village
b. Plowing ‑wooden plow; sometimes plowed before, sometimes after, sowing
c.Sowing ‑ for grains, used broadcast method
d.Harvesting ‑ by hand, with sickles
e. Winnowing grain‑ to separate grain from chaff after threshing, using breeze, tossing inair
f.Mortar and pestle ‑ for grinding grain into flour
g.Grindstone & mortars ‑ other tools for making flour
h.Baking oven ‑ frequently outdoors, looks like pizza oven
i.Olive tree ‑ slow growing, about 40 years to first crop, but yielded forcenturies
j.Watchtower in orchard ‑ to protect produce from theft, esp around harvesttime
k.Olive press ‑ to squeeze olive oil from olives
l.Donkey ‑ standard animal for hauling loads
m.Loaves & fishes ‑ pita‑type bread
n.Modern (!) Palestinian vineyard ‑ plants run along ground instead of uptrellises
o.Grape leaf on coin
p.Wine decanter
2.Pastoral Culture (most from BAR set)
a.Bedouins in wilderness
b.Flocks grazing, at well
c.Woman spinning wool
d.Weaving on loom
III. Society
A. Buildings, Architecture
1.Ancient stoneworkers
2.Shrine at Machpelah (Herodian public building)
overcave where Abraham, Isaac, Jacob buried
usedby archeologists for stonework in temple model
3.Greco‑Roman Theatre (drama, public meetings)
oftenbuilt in side of hill to save labor
4.Amphitheatre (gladitorial events)
fromamphi (both sides)
Colosseumin Rome is an amphitheatre
5.Circus/Hippodrome (chariot racing)
6.Forum/Agora (Gerasa, Rome)
marketplace
7.Structures at Baalbek (Lebanon)
templesof Greco‑Roman period
centerfor worship of Baal = Zeus = Jupiter
B. Cities
1.Typical Walled city
toprotect against sudden attack
2.City houses crowded together
dueto expense of militarily viable wall around city
3.Street scenes
streetsnarrow for same reason
4.Aqueduct
bringingwater from distance, usually several miles for drinking, esp bathing
5.Roman baths
morelike sauna or Turkish baths than like ours
6.Gymnasium
fromgymnos ‑ naked
exercisein various classical athletic events:
running,jumping, javelin, discus, boxing, wrestling
C. Business
1.Shops
usually downstairs of large apartmentbuildings or mansions, using rooms facing street
2.Potter
oneof prime crafts before invention of plastic dishware
3.Weights
usedin weighing merchandise and (earlier) money
4.Slave market
soldlike animals, for strength, beauty, skills
D. Transportation
1.Donkey, cart
standardlightweight transport; oxen used for heavy carts
horsesonly for military use until invention of adequate harness in middle ages
2.Roman roads
laidstraight, with cutting, bridging, curbs
excellentpaving: 3-5 feet thick, using stone, concrete
narrowby our standards: four "lanes" each 7.75 feet wide
3.Roman bridge
oneof important uses of arch, developed by Romans
4.Merchant ships
usuallysail powered, relatively short and wide
5.Warships
poweredby oars for control, long & narrow, high speed
seabattles mostly ramming and boarding
untilByzantines invented "Greek fire"
E. Religion
1.Paganism
a.Parthenon & furnishings ‑ Athens
b. Pagan festival –sacrificial processions on festival days rather than weekly services
c. Mysteryreligions – usually imported from elsewhere in middle east; moreindividual than state religions
d.Idols – a standard feature of paganism
2.Temple at Jerusalem
a.Facade on Bar‑Kochba coin, c AD 135
b.Jerusalem model
c.Menorah & incense shovel on lamp, c AD 200
d.Menorah & trumpets on Arch of Titus, c AD 80
e.Symbols of sukkoth on coin, c AD 135
citron(a citrus fruit) and lulab (bunch of fronds
frommyrtle, palm, willow)
f.Libation cup, c AD 68 (drink offerings)
3.Synagogues
a. Capernaum ‑beautiful white limestone in area where main building material is dark basalt
b.Chorazin ‑ up in hills a few miles N of Capernaum
c.Masada
IV.Introduction to Archaeology
A.Definition of Archaeology
1.Older definition, now obsolete:
"thestudy of human antiquities"
thisbroad definition has been subdivided into several disciplines:
history,archaeology, anthropology
2.Modern Definition (Blaiklock):
"the branch of historical researchwhich draws its evidence from surviving material traces and remains of pasthuman activity"
3.Humorous Definition:
"thestudy of durable trash"
B.Methods of Archaeology (slide illustrated)
1.The Fate of Ancient Cities
a.Fortified, usually on hills (Aleppo)
b.Frequently destroyed, but usually rebuilt if location good
c.Resultant layering (Megiddo)
d.Gradually building up a "tell" (Hippos)
e.If now unoccupied, systematic excavation feasible;
otherwiseonly spotty, when new building done
2.The "Dig": Archaeological Excavation
a.Trench method (Megiddo) ‑ older technique
digup everything in strategically located area
b.Baulk Method (Lachish) ‑ now standard
digsquares, leaving "walls" between for stratigraphy
3.The Data Uncovered
a.Organic Remains
1)Human
2)Animal \ indications of human diet, etc.
3)Plant /
b.Artifacts: evidence of human labor
1)Pottery (NT period examples)
2)Tools & Weapons
3)Religious objects
4)Olive press
5)Mosaic
6)Coins (Masada hoard, sestertius of Vespasian)
c.Structures
1)Buildings (Qumran ruins, Capernaum synagogue)
2)Roads (Corinth: Lechaeum road; Roman road)
3)Cities
4)Fortifications (Herodium, Masada)
5)Earthworks (Masada: Roman camp)
d.Writings
1)Inscriptions: writing carved in stone
2)Ostraca: writing on potsherds
3)Documents: writing on papyrus, leather, etc.
C.Some Archaeological Sites of the N.T. Period
1.Jerusalem
a.History
pre‑datesconquest by David c 1000 BC
continuouslyinhabited since return from Babylon c 537 BC
Jesusactive here during pilgrim festivals:
trial,crucifixion, resurrection (AD 27‑30)
Earlyapostolic activity:
Pentecost,early preaching, death of Stephen, James,
Jerusalem council, death of James theLord's brother
destroyedby Romans AD 70
rebuiltas Roman city Aelia Capitolina AD 135
underGentile control until 1967
b.Archaeology (Jerusalem model & modern remains)
(1)Damascus Gate
(2)Jaffa Gate & towers
(3)Fortress Antonia
(4)The Temple Mount (see picture, B-25)
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Temple Inscription: "Let noforeigner enter within the screen and enclosure surrounding thesanctuary. Whoever is taken sodoing will be the cause of his own death."
2.Capernaum ‑ Kefar Nahum(village of Nahum)
a.History
uncertainbefore NT times; relocated in this century;
homeof Peter (Mk 1:29); synagogue mentioned (Lk 7:5)
becameheadquarters of Jesus during public ministry
Hepronounced woes on it for not repenting (Mt 11:23)
relativelyprosperous in late Roman times (3rd cen ff)
inhabitedby both Jews and Xns
destroyedby Muslims 7th cen, site lost
b. Jewish Synagogue (see picture, B-27)
dateuncertain, but prob after AD 200, on site of NT synagogue
twostory bldg, c 90' x 110' (incl courtyard)
basilica‑style,gable roof, white limestone
1stfloor: benches for men, columns, ark‑screen
2ndfloor: balcony for women
carvings:menorah, ark?
pillarw/ inscription in Greek: "Herod son of Mo ... mus & Justus hisson, together with his children, erected this column"
fromChorazin, for illustration: ornamental seat, prob a "Mosesseat" w/ Aram inscr: "Remembered for good be Judah ben Ishmael,who made this porch & its stair-case. As his reward may he have a share w/ the righteous"
c. Christian Church
5thcen structure w/ central octagon
underneathis a 4th cen house church (which in AD 385 was said to be Peter's house)
underneaththis is remains of 1st cen house with evidence it was used for worship as earlyas 2nd or 3rd cen
3.Caesarea (see map B-30)
a.History
probfounded by Sidonians, known as Strato's Tower, before NT times
refounded by Herod the Gt as major portc20‑10 BC & named by him for Caesar Augustus
afterHerod's death, made Roman capital of Palestine
Peterat Caesarea for conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10)
HerodAgrippa I died here (Acts 12)
Paulimprisoned here 2 yr, tried by governors Felix & Festus (Acts 24‑26)
destroyedby Muslims c 640
rebuilt (smaller) by Crusaders c 1100,then destroyed again by Muslims c 1265
ruinsnow cover over 8000 acres, largest site in Palestine
b.Archaeology
mostruins from NT period, work of Herod the Great
(1)Artificial Harbor
twomoles (causeways) 200' wide, one 250 yd long, other 600 yd; enclosec 40 acres of water
stoneblocks used up to 50'x18'x9' acc to Josephus
thesehave turned out to be concrete
(2)Sewer system: very extensive; designed to be cleaned by tides
(3)Aqueducts
highlevel: open top; 10 mi long
lowlevel: closed; 6 mi long (later than NT period)
(4)Buildings:
Palace:perhaps on site of ornamental pool
Templeto Rome and Augustus
(5)Theatre
Pilate/Tiberiusinscription (see picture, B-28)
(6)Hippodrome
~80 x 320 yards
4.Herodion / Herodium
a.History
one of several fortifications built orrefurbished by Herod the Great for defense, retreat
thisone built from scratch 24‑15 BC near Bethlehem:
natural hill artificially elevated byadding earth ramparts 150' high, giving total height 400'
tophollowed out for fortified palace, surrounded by walls & towers
afterHerod's death, garrisoned by Romans
takenby Zealots in 1st revolt, retaken by Romans AD 72
majoradministrative center during Bar‑Kochba War
since135, only used by Christian monks in 5th‑7th centuries
b.Archaeology
notexcavated until 1960s
casemate(hollow) walls
fourtowers: 3 semicircular to defend top; 4th circular as final refuge
(posscontains Herod's gold coffin)
ontop: E side: colonnaded courtyard
Wside: dining room, living quarters, Roman bath
underground:storerooms, reservoirs
atfoot: apartments, gardens, baths, terraces, pools, storehouses
laterchanges (Zealot): E sector made into synagogue, ritual bath added
c.Significance
illustratesHerod's fear of revolt (cp killing babies in Matt 2)
alsoillustrates Herod's lavish building activity
vividreminder of Zealots & Bar‑Kochba rebellion
5.Masada (see map, B-34)
namemeans "fortress, stronghold"
a.History
anatural butte / mesa / plateau / tableland
about1300' above surface of Dead Sea
topsurface fairly flat, about 1900' x 650'
app used some intimes of monarchy & Maccabees, but scant remains of these periods survive
mainfortification by Herod the Gt c 30 BC
builtpalaces, storerooms, stocked for indefinite siege
afterHerod's death, garrisoned by Romans
capturedby Zealots under Menachem AD 66
lastholdout against Romans in 1st revolt
defended byEleazar Ben-Yair & 960 people against Flavius Silva & 10th legion,falling in AD 73
defenderscommitted suicide just before capture
Romangarrison remained for ~ 50 yr
siteof small Christian monastic community 5th & 6th centuries
excavated1963‑75, now national park
Israeliarmy motto: "Masada shall not fall again!"
b.Archaeology
nostructures found before HerodŐs time, tho many Maccabean coins
(1)West Palace ‑ about 190' x 190'
ceremonialuse: throne room, living quarters
(2)North Palace ‑ on three tiers at N end of mesa
privatequarters of Herod, protected from sun & S‑wind
well‑preservedfrescoes; largest Rom bath in E Rom Emp
(3)Storerooms
mostlynear N end; one section c 200' x 100'
anotherc 100' x 100'
remainsof food still survive, identifiable
winejars with date 19 BC (consulate of Sentius Saturninus)
(4)Evidence of Zealot Occupation
oldestknown example of synagogue (renovated by Zealots?) &ritual bath conforming to Talmudic reqs
many rooms incasemate walls modified with cupboards, ovens, etc.
pottery,coins, cosmetics
(5)Evidence of Roman Siege
rollingstones (c 100 lb each) near paths
Romanballistae
destruction layerof ash & charred wood in all major buildings
fragsof 14 scrolls, incl Bible (Gen, Lev, Pss, Ezk)
oneapoc (Sirach), some Essene (Jubilees, Scroll of
SabbSacrifices)
Romanassault ramp
Roman camps (8 ofthem) and siege wall (2 mi long, 6' thick)
6.Corinth
a.History
oneof great seaports of ancient Greece
twoharbors: Cenchreae on E, Lechaeum on W
crossroadsbetw Aegean & Ionian Seas, betw N & So Greece
alreadyimportant by 8th cen BC
destroyedby Romans 146 BC
rebuiltby Romans 44 BC
madecapital of province of Achaia 27 BC
very low moralclimate due to transients & Aphrodite worship (temple with 1000prostitutes)
Paulfounded church here on 2nd mj (AD 51‑52; Acts 18)
spent 18 mo here;wrote 1 & 2 Cor to them; wrote Romans from here;
charged by Jewsbefore Rom proconsul Gallio, who refused to hear case (Ac 18:12‑17)
b.Archaeology
mostremains from Rom period, since destroyed 146 BC
exceptTemple of Apollo, from 6th cen BC
LechaeumRd. lined with shops
Agora (forum, marketplace) with shops and bemawhere Paul presumably stood before Gallio
Inscriptionsof interest:
ERASTVS‑PRO‑AED/ S‑P‑STRAVIT
"Erastus, inreturn for his aedileship, laid this pavement at his own expense" (cp Rom16:23)
another:"Synagogue of Hebrews"
7.Rome (see map, B-24)
a.History
rosefrom obscurity c 500 BC to control Mediterranean by 30 BC
PaxRomana ‑ begins with reign of Augustus, lasting over 200 yr;
generalpeace throughout RE; golden age of civilization,
prosperityfor Rome
Paulimprisoned here 61‑63 on appeal to Caesar (Nero)
Roman fire, July64: soon blamed on Xns to divert suspicion from Nero; beginning of officialpersecution of Xy, lasting (off & on) to 313
Traditionally,Peter & Paul martyred here sometime in period 64‑68
Christiansfrequently martyred here 64‑313
Rome'simportance continues (with ups & downs) to present
b.Archaeology
workof recovery begins in 1700s
(1)Imperial Palaces
PalatineHill: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius
coveredby Domitian's palace
Nero'sGolden House: eradicated by later emperors
(2)Roman Forum
(3)Circus Maximus: 200 x 600 yds w/ 350 yd straightaway
seated200,000; used for chariot races, animal hunts, martyrdomof Xns
(4)Colosseum (see picture, B-36)
amphitheatrebuilt by Vespasian & Titus (AD 80)
seated 50,000; used for gladiators,animals, Xns
(5)Mamartine Prison
traditionalprison of Peter & Paul
(6)Arch of Titus
commemoratingconquest of Judea
(7)Vatican
tradsite of Peter's death; St. Peter's Cathedral
built overConstantinian church, which itself built over much earlier shrine
(8)St. Paul's Basilica (see picture, B-36)
about3 mi S of Rome on Ostian Way
tradsite of Paul's beheading
churchfrom Constantine's time still standing
(9)Catacombs
subterraneancemeteries built by Xns up to 5th cen
veryextensive: est over 500 mi of corridors
mainlyused for cemeteries, but some use for worship & hidingduring persecution, as Romans would not
violatecemeteries
"TheGood Shepherd," Catacomb of Priscilla
